Early childhood diets in medieval and Post-Medieval Palkane, Finland: 
Insights from stable isotope analysis
Tiina Vare a,b , Ulla Nordfors c,d,*
a Laboratory of Chronology, Finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki, LUOMUS, Helsinki, Finland
b History, Culture and Communication Studies, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
c Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
d Museum Centre Vapriikki, Tampere, Finland
A R T I C L E  I N F O
Keywords:
Breastfeeding
Weaning
Dietary patterns
Infants
Health
A B S T R A C T
Early childhood nutrition is crucial for long-term health, yet little is known about breastfeeding and weaning 
practices in medieval and post-medieval Finland. This study investigates early childhood dietary histories of six 
individuals buried at St. Michael’s Church in Palkane (13th–19th centuries CE) using stable isotope (ẟ13C and 
ẟ15N) analyses of dentin collagen from first permanent molars. These isotopic profiles reveal that all individuals 
were initially breastfed, but the duration and nature of weaning practices varied. Three medieval individuals 
(13th century) exhibited prolonged breastfeeding periods of approximately two years or more, consistent with 
broader European medieval norms. In contrast, two post-medieval children (late 18th–early 19th centuries) were 
weaned significantly earlier, around their first birthday, possibly reflecting social and economic shifts in dietary 
practices. Evidence of stress markers, such as enamel hypoplasia and isotopic shifts, suggests that weaning- 
related malnutrition or disease influenced some individuals’ health and survival. Notably, differences in δ15N 
values point to variations in weaning foods compared to average post-weaning diets, with one medieval in-
dividual’s profile suggesting the possible inclusion of C4 plants, possibly Chenopodium album, in the weaning 
diet.
1. Introduction
Early childhood nutrition lays the foundation for health in later life. 
In Medieval and Post-Medieval Finland (c. 13th–19th centuries CE), 
society was predominantly agrarian, with communities relying on 
farming and fishing (e.g., Taavitsainen 2005; Lahtinen 2017; Lahtinen & 
Salmi 2018; Maaranen 2002: 104–105; L~ougas & Blauer, 2020). Family 
units were often closely knit, and breastfeeding was likely a natural part 
of infant care, as breast milk provides essential nutrition and immune 
protection during an infant’s early months. However, little is known 
about early childhood dietary practices, including the prevalence and 
duration of breastfeeding or the nature of weaning foods and customs, as 
there are no written sources that would provide detailed accounts of 
these practices. Consequently, archaeological research and stable 
isotope analyses are crucial for investigating this topic (see Vare et al. 
2023; Vare et al 2022a; Vare et al. 2022b).
Early childhood diets in the past can be studied using the stable 
isotope ratios of carbon (ẟ13C) and nitrogen (ẟ15N) in tissues formed 
during that period. Over the past decade, numerous studies have 
explored this topic among various archaeological populations (e.g., 
Eerkens et al. 2011; Beaumont & Montgomery 2016; Laffranchi et al. 
2018; Lee et al. 2020; Drtikolova Kaupova et al. 2024). Determining 
whether early life began with breast milk consumption, as is typical for 
mammalian species, relies on observing the trophic enrichment of 
heavier isotopes in the tissues of consumers, i.e., breastfed infants. 
Breastfeeding practices, however, are shaped by multiple factors, 
including a woman’s milk production, cultural preferences, habits, and 
even societal recommendations.
In exclusively breastfed infants, ẟ15N values are elevated by 
approximately 2–3 ‰ and ẟ13C values by around 1 ‰ compared to the 
nursing woman (Fogel et al. 1989; Fuller et al. 2006). During weaning, 
as the proportion of breast milk in the diet decreases, the fraction of 
heavier isotopes in the developing dentin also diminishes. Once 
breastfeeding ceases entirely, the δ-values reach the approximate level 
measured in the tissues of the nursing woman, assuming the weaned 
child consumes an isotopically similar diet (e.g., Fogel et al. 1989; 
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ulla.nordfors@utu.fi (U. Nordfors). 
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105113
Received 23 November 2024; Received in revised form 23 March 2025; Accepted 26 March 2025  
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
Available online 29 March 2025 2352-409X/© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). 
Eerkens et al. 2011; Beaumont et al. 2013).
The isotope composition of collagen of inert dentin primarily reflects 
the protein component of nutrition, revealing the (healthy) individual’s 
trophic position during dentin formation. It can also offer information 
about the individual’s physiological condition (Ambrose & Norr 1993; 
Fernandes et al. 2012), as changes in ẟ-values may indicate shifts in 
condition. For example, starvation leads to an enrichment of 15N atoms 
in developing tissues due to the recycling of amino acid nitrogen. 
Similarly, the utilization of stored lipids, which are low in 13C, may 
result in a depletion of ẟ13C values, although this effect is not consis-
tently observed (e.g., Neuberger et al. 2013; Mekota et al. 2006; 2009; 
Doi et al. 2017).
The development of first permanent molars (M1) begins around the 
time of birth, with dentin growth proceeding from the dentinoenamel 
junction towards the root. The crown forms over the first three years of 
life, while root apex typically completes development by around nine 
years of age (AlQahtani et al. 2010). Changes in the proportion of di-
etary protein can be traced by analyzing the dentin in successive, 
transversally cut segments. These anatomical landmarks provide refer-
ence points for estimating the approximate developmental period of 
each segment. Due to the pattern of dentin growth, the temporal reso-
lution is higher in segments cut from the earliest-forming parts of the 
crown—specifically, the cusps and the dentin immediately beneath the 
dentinoenamel junction. whereas growth in the root segments increas-
ingly overlaps, leading to a rolling average of values (Eerkens et al. 
2011; Beaumont and Montgomery 2016; Beaumont et al. 2018).
This article reconstructs the early childhood (life)histories of three 
medieval (13th century CE) and three post-medieval (17th–19th century 
CE) individuals buried at St Michael’s Church in Palkane, Finland 
(Fig. 1), providing insights into their nutrition and physical state. In 
autumn 2022, 17 graves were excavated from the site. Six of the in-
dividuals had relatively well-preserved first molars that were suitable 
for studying historic breastfeeding practices. These individuals repre-
sent different periods and had different ages at death, suggesting that 
isotopic analyses may reveal varied childhood conditions. For those who 
died during childhood, some isotope values may indicate adverse con-
ditions, such as malnutrition or disease, rather than diet alone.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Graves at St. Michael’s Church, Palkane
The six studied individuals, along with their osteological age and sex, 
and the dating of their graves, are presented in Table 1. All individuals 
were found at the site currently known as the St Michael’s Church 
(Rauniokirkko). The now-abandoned and ruined church was con-
structed between 1495 and 1505, though a church or chapel existed at 
the site as early as the 14th century (Hiekkanen 2007: 319–321, 2020: 
408). The site was used as a cemetery even earlier, with the oldest graves 
radiocarbon dated to the 13th century (Mikkola & Vuoristo 2004: 5–6; 
Moilanen 2023: 63, 69). Christianity became firmly established in the 
region during the 13th and 14th centuries with the founding of the first 
parishes (Hiekkanen 2020: 408). The medieval graves included in this 
study (H2, H6, and H9) likely represent members of the general, early 
Christian rural population. This population primarily consisted of free 
farmers, as Finland did not experience feudalism or the highly stratified 
class systems typical of Central Europe or the Baltic countries.
The Reformation in the 16th century brought significant changes to 
Finland’s religious, social, and cultural landscape. The growth of towns 
and the expansion of trade networks further contributed to increasing 
Fig. 1. Location of Palkane, and the ruin of St Michael’s church.
Table 1 
The individuals in this study.
Grave Osteological sex 
determination (
Kuha 2023)
Age 
estimation (
Kuha 2023)
Dating (
Moilanen 
2023)
Additional 
information
H2 n/a Adult Late 13th 
century
Linear enamel 
hypoplasia
H6 Female Young adult Mid-13th 
century
​
H9 Female Adult Early 13th 
century
​
H11 Female Adult 17th 
century
​
H15 n/a Child 2–3 
years
Early 19th 
century
Possibly low 
socioeconomic 
class
H16 n/a Child 9–12 
years
Late 18th 
century
Possibly low 
socioeconomic 
class
T. Vare and U. Nordfors                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
2 
social stratification, even within rural communities. Social status 
became a determining factor in grave placement, and individuals of 
higher socioeconomic standing were typically buried either inside the 
church or on its south side (e.g., Paavola 1998: 36). In contrast, burials 
on the church’s northern side were often associated with individuals 
from lower socioeconomic groups (Rimpilainen, 1971: 72). Thus, the 
two chronologically youngest burials in this study (H15 and H16) are 
likely to represent members of the lower socioeconomic class.
2.2. Sample preparation and stable isotope analysis
The first permanent molars of six individuals from Palkane were 
sufficiently preserved for the early childhood dietary analysis using the 
1 mm sectioning method introduced by Beaumont et al. (2013). Two of 
these individuals had died during childhood, while the remaining four 
had reached adulthood (Table 1). In the adult individuals, both the 
occlusal enamel and underlying dentin were significantly worn 
(Table 2), resulting in the loss of information about their nutrition 
during the earliest months of life. Additionally, incomplete root pres-
ervation further reduced the accuracy of estimating developmental 
timing based on anatomical landmarks. Dental wear may have led to the 
formation of tertiary dentin while secondary dentin, which forms 
around the pulp chamber as an individual ages, also complicates the 
analysis of early childhood diets (Arana-Chavez & Massa, 2004; Smith 
et al., 2012; Meinl et al., 2007). This later-formed tissue reflects the diet 
at the time of its formation, potentially obscuring earlier dietary signals. 
Table 2 
Results of the ẟ13C and ẟ15N analyses of the M1 segments of archaeological individuals excavated from Palkane. The estimates of developmental periods for each 1 mm 
segment were calculated based on the distances between dentinoenamel and cementoenamel junctions and apex. For H15, who was a child, the age-estimates were 
modified after Eerkens et al. (2011) as the tooth was not fully developed.
Grave Estimated crown 
height
Estimated length Mid-point of the age of formation 
in years
δ13C 
(VPDB)
δ15N 
(AIR)
Additional information
H9 5,3 mm 21 mm 0,5*   20,8 15,2 Dietary information: 0,3–4,7 yrs
0,8   21,1 14,2
1,4   21,3 13,1
2,0   21,7 11,9
2,5 –22,1 11,1
3,1 –22,3 11
3,4 –22,3 11,3
3,8 –22,2 10,7
4,1 –22,3 11
4,5 –22,4 11
H6 4,7 mm 16,5 mm 0,5*   20,9 13,3 Dietary information: 0,3–5,6 yrs
1,0   21,1 12
1,6   21,2 10,6
2,2   21,6 9,5
2,9   21,9 9
3,4 –22 8,6
3,9   21,9 8,7
4,4   21,8 8,4
4,9   21,5 8,2
5,4 –22,4 8,1
H2 4,1 mm 18,5 mm ** ​ ​ Linear enamel hypoplasia Dietary information: 
0,7–5,4 yrs1,1   21,4 11,9
1,8   21,3 9,7
2,6   21,3 9,1
3,1   21,2 9,2
3,5   21,5 9
3,9   21,6 7,5
4,3   21,7 7,8
4,7   21,6 7,7
5,2 ​ ​
H11 4,5 mm 16,5 mm 0,5*   20 12,3 Dietary information: 0,3–5,8 yrs
1,0   20,4 11,1
1,7   20,8 9,9
2,3   20,6 9,6
3,0   20,3 9,2
3,5   20,3 9,3
4,0   20,1 9,3
4,5   20,1 9,4
5,0   20,2 9,5
5,5   20,2 10,3
H16 5,0 mm 18,5 mm (no apical 
closure)
0,3   20,3 11,2 Possibly low socio-economic class 
Dietary information: birth   5,2 yrs0,9   20,3 10,2
1,5   20,4 9,6
2,1   20,7 9,9
2,7   21,2 10
3,2   21 10
3,7   21 9,4
4,1   20,8 9,2
4,6   20,8 9,1
5,0   20,6 9
H15 n/a n/a 0,3   19,4 14,6 Possibly low socioeconomic class 
Dietary information: birth   2,3 yrs0,8   20,1 13
1,4   20,5 11
2,0   20,5 11,6
T. Vare and U. Nordfors                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
3 
The discoloured dentin was carefully removed during sample prepara-
tion to avoid inclusion of degraded collagen in samples (cr. Czermak 
et al. 2019).
Although establishing a precise developmental timeline may not be 
possible, the sequence of dietary changes can still be examined. Thus, to 
assess early childhood diets, profiles illustrating the development of 
both ẟ values were created. Weaning ages (i.e., the cessation of breast-
feeding) were estimated by identifying the point at which ẟ15N values 
plateaued and approached the average post-weaning ẟ15N level, indi-
cating a dietary shift to foods more consistent with those consumed by 
the rest of the family. The behaviour of ẟ13C values was also visually 
examined to support this assessment. Additionally, the recently devel-
oped WEAN tool (Ganiatsou et al. 2023), which estimates weaning ages 
based on ẟ15N values in dentin collagen, was employed to refine and 
validate the visual examination. The tool can also be used to estimate the 
largest isotopic offset, helping to determine whether the difference be-
tween the first and later values is more likely attributed to breastfeeding 
or influenced by factors such as physiological stress (cf. King et al. 2018; 
Craig-Atkins et al. 2018).
Following the protocol outlined by Beaumont et al. (2013), the me-
chanically brushed first molars (M1s) were vertically bisected using a 
diamond wheel cutter and ultrasonicated in ultrapure water. Loose 
enamel was carefully removed from the tooth halves, which were then 
submerged in 0.5 M HCl at room temperature for up to a week and 
subsequently rinsed with ultrapure water. The demineralized tooth 
halves were sliced into parallel horizontal segments of 1 mm. Our 
isotope analysis was limited to the first ten segments, as the temporal 
resolution of the root segments becomes increasingly blurred (Tsutaya 
2020). As can be inferred from the timeline of tooth developmental 
stages (AlQahtani et al. 2010), ten millimeters capture dietary infor-
mation for the individuals from Palkane up to approximately 5 to 6 years 
of age, depending on tooth length. These segments were surged in pH 3 
(0.001 M) HCl solution in individual microcentrifuge tubes and gelati-
nized at 70 C for 24 h. After this, the samples were centrifuged, frozen, 
and lyophilized. Dry collagen (0.800–1.000 mg) was then weighed into 
tin capsules. Dentin collagen samples were analyzed in duplicate 
whenever possible to ensure data reliability.
The analyses were conducted at the Nuclear Research Department, 
Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Vilnius, Lithuania, using a 
Flash EA 1112 series Elemental analyzer connected to a Delta V 
Advantage Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (IRMS) via a ConFlo III 
interface (Thermo, Bremen, Germany). The Elemental analyzer consists 
of oxidation and reduction furnaces, a chromatographic column (Por-
aPlot Q), a water absorption column, and a TCD detector. Stable carbon 
and nitrogen isotopic compositions were determined using a Thermo 
Delta V continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometer coupled to a 
Thermo FlashEA1112 elemental analyzer. Stable carbon and nitrogen 
isotopic compositions were calibrated relative to the VPDB and AIR 
scales using USGS24 and IAEA-600. Precision (u(Rw)) was determined 
to be  0.24 ‰ for δ13C and  0.34 ‰ δ15N on the basis of repeated 
measurements of calibration standards and sample replicates. Accuracy 
or systematic error (u(bias)) was determined to be  0.12 for both δ13C 
and δ15N on the basis of the difference between the observed and known 
δ values of the check standards. The total analytical uncertainty was 
estimated to be  0.26 ‰ for δ13C and  0.36 for δ15N.
3. Results
A total of 93 dentin collagen samples from the first permanent molars 
of 6 individuals were analyzed for ẟ13C and ẟ15N values. Of these, 91 
samples met the following collagen quality control criteria and were 
included in the analysis: atomic C:N ratios between 3.2 and 3.3 (cf. 
DeNiro 1985), C% between 34.0–43.6 % and N% between 12.0–15.4 % 
(cf. Ambrose 1990; van Klinken 1999). These quality indicators are 
detailed in the Supplementary Material. Caffeine IAEA-600 
(ẟ15N1‰; ẟ13C  -27.77 ‰) and Graphite USGS24 (ẟ13C  -16.05 
‰) were used as secondary reference materials; the analytical precision 
was 0.1 ‰ for ẟ13C and 0.15 ‰ for the ẟ15N.
The ẟ13C values ranged from –22.4 ‰ to   19.4 ‰ (mean   21.1 
0.7 ‰) and the ẟ15N values from 7.5 ‰ to 15.2 ‰ (mean 10.2  1.7 ‰). 
The ẟ13C values for the first segments that are primarily influenced by 
breastfeeding ranged from   20.49 ‰ to   19.4 ‰ (n  5, mean   20.3 
0.6 ‰) and the ẟ15N values from 11.2 ‰ to 15.2 ‰ (n  5, mean 13.3 
1.6 ‰). In contrast, the values from the last two segments, which reflect 
the diet between approximate ages of four and six, were notably lower: 
–22.4 ‰ and   20.1 ‰ (mean   21.1  0.8 ‰) for ẟ13C and 7.7 ‰ –22.4 
Fig. 2. The early childhood dietary profiles of six individuals from Palkane. The mean δ13C (  21.5 ‰) from the last two dentin samples of the adults in this study and 
the mean post-weaning δ15N values by the WEAN tool are presented as solid (δ15N) and dashed (δ13C) lines, respectively. The weaning age estimates by WEAN tool 
have been indicated in red dash lines. Individuals surviving into adulthood are coloured white, and individuals who died in childhood (H15, H16) gray.
T. Vare and U. Nordfors                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
4 
Table 3 
Interpretation of the results.
Grave Most likely weaning age based on visual 
observation
Most likely weaning age based on WEAN (
Ganiatsou et al. 2023)
Interpretation
H9 (early 
13th 
century)
Information about the individual’s diet during the 
first couple of months of life is missing due to dental 
wear; this has been noted in the age estimations (
Table 2). The δ15N value in the first segment shows 
a  5.8 ‰ elevation compared to the mean post- 
weaning diet, indicating an initial period of 
exclusive breastfeeding. In the second segment, the 
δ15N values begin to decline, suggesting that the 
weaning process likely started a little after six 
months of age. Weaning may have continued until 
after the individual’s second birthday, as the δ15N 
values stabilize only in the fifth segment.
The most likely weaning age, estimated at 2.3 years, 
aligns well with a visual interpretation of the 
dietary profile. The covarying δ13C values further 
support this interpretation.
The offset of 4.2 ‰ between the values of the first and 
sixth segments (according to WEAN tool, the 
estimated δ15N value difference is 3.6 ‰), exceeds the 
typical elevation caused by breastfeeding (e.g., Fuller 
et al. 2006). The mother’s diet could have been richer 
in δ15N than the average post-weaning food, and after 
infancy, this individual’s diet also appears to have 
been relatively protein-rich compared to the other 
individuals in the study (mean post-weaning δ15N 
value from WEAN: 11.0 ‰ vs. the average of 9.4 ‰).. 
However, significantly higher elevations in the first 
M1 dentin samples of breastfed individuals, beyond 
what is typically expected, could also result from a 
combined influence of physiological stress and 
breastfeeding (King et al. 2018; Craig-Atkins et al. 
2018).
H6 (mid- 
13th 
century)
Information about the individual’s diet during the 
first couple of months of life is missing due to dental 
wear. The δ15N value in the first segment is  4.8 ‰ 
higher than the individual’s mean post-weaning 
δ15N value, indicating that exclusive breastfeeding 
was still ongoing around the six-month mark when 
the segment formed, and weaning beginning slightly 
later. The δ15N values stabilize at the sixth segment. 
This suggests that breastfeeding likely continued 
beyond the second birthday.
The most likely weaning age is 2.4 years. While the 
changes in δ13C values are subtle, their 
simultaneous decline with the δ15N values supports 
the interpretation that these patterns reflect 
breastfeeding followed by weaning.
The weaning process for this individual appears to 
have been gradual. The notable difference of 4.7 ‰ 
(or estimated δ15N value difference of 4.0 ‰ with 
WEAN) between the δ15N value in the first and the 
sixth segments suggests that the weaning foods 
contained fewer 15N atoms than the mother’s diet 
during breastfeeding. However, the possible effect of 
nutritional stress implied by the larger than usual 
isotopic offset could also be considered (King et al. 
2018; Craig-Atkins et al. 2018). After the 
breastfeeding period, the individual’s diet appears to 
have been predominantly plant-based.
H2 (late 
13th 
century)
The δ15N values for the first segment are 
unavailable, but the second segment shows a 
significant increase in δ15N value, suggesting an 
initial period of exclusive breastfeeding, though its 
duration cannot be determined. The δ15N values 
continue to decline until stabilizing after the 
individual’s second birthday, indicating a weaning 
process that likely lasted until the end of the second 
year. However, the proportion of breast milk in the 
diet likely began to decrease months earlier.
The WEAN tool suggests a weaning age of 1.8 years; 
however, caution should be applied in interpreting 
the results when the earliest values are missing. 
Nevertheless, as the derivative for this individual 
was negative, we are inclined to trust the analysis.
The δ13C values remain stable throughout most of the 
observation period, even slightly increasing over 
time. This is not necessarily unusual (Craig-Atkins 
et al. 2018). As suggested by Dupras et al. (2001), 
such a pattern may result from the inclusion of 
weaning foods with higher 13C values, such as C4- 
plants, compared to the nursing woman’s diet. Millet, 
a common C4-plant in the Baltic region during the late 
medieval period, has not been documented in Finland 
in the 13th century (Grabowski 2011; Pollmann 2014; 
Etu-Sihvola et al. 2022). However, plants in the 
Chenopodiaceae family, which include several C4- 
plants (Pyankov et al. 2010) and some C3– C4 
intermediate types (Yorimitsu et al. 2019), may offer 
an explanation. For example, Chenopodium album is 
commonly found in Finland in Late Iron Age and Early 
Medieval contexts and is known to have been used as 
a flour additive/ supplement (Lempiainen-Avci, 2022: 
290–291). This individual’s teeth also exhibit enamel 
hypoplasia (Kuha 2023), which can indicate 
nutritional or physiological stress during early 
childhood (see King et al. 2005; White et al. 2012: 
455). Based on the location of the transverse lines, 
such stress may have occurred between the ages of 2 
and 4 years (Dąbrowski et al., 2021), potentially 
linking it to weaning-related challenges. Additionally, 
a pronounced decline in the δ15N values during this 
period may reflect a dietary shift toward more plant- 
based nutrition.
H11 (17th 
century)
Information about the individual’s diet during the 
first couple of months of life is missing due to dental 
wear. The initially elevated δ15N value implies that 
exclusive breastfeeding was ongoing when the 
dentin in the first segment formed, around six 
months of age. The δ15N values stabilize and reach 
the post-weaning level by the fourth or fifth 
segment, indicating that breastfeeding likely 
continued until at least the child’s second birthday, 
possibly even longer. However, the proportion of 
breast milk in the diet may have started to decrease 
significantly soon after the first year.
A relatively late weaning age of 2.5 years The δ15N value difference is 3.1 ‰ between the first 
and fifth segments but the expected difference of 2.9 
‰ by WEAN points toward breastfeeding as the cause 
of the δ15N value elevation during early months. The 
gradual decline in δ13C values is consistent with 
breast milk consumption during infancy, with a 
noticeable shift occurring around the time of 
presumed weaning.
H16 (Late 
18th 
century)
The δ15N values decline from  1.7 ‰ above the 
mean post-weaning level in the first segment and 
reach the level in the third. This suggests that this 
individual was breastfed – possibly exclusively – 
A weaning age as early as 1.15 years This individual died in mid-childhood (Table 1). 
Although it is unclear whether the relatively short 
breastfeeding period directly contributed to their 
early death, it may have influenced their long-term 
(continued on next page)
T. Vare and U. Nordfors                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
5 
‰ and   20.2 ‰ (mean   21.3  0.9 ‰) for ẟ13C and 7.7 ‰ and 11.0 ‰ 
(n  9, mean 9.3  1.2 ‰). These lower values suggest that breast milk 
consumption did not influence the ẟ-values of later stages. The average 
values of duplicate samples were used for analyses and are presented in 
Table 2.
The ẟ15N values in the earliest-forming first segments of the M1s (n 
 5) ranged from  4.8 to  1.7 ‰ above the individual’s mean post- 
weaning ẟ15N values calculated by the WEAN tool. These values 
reflect the later childhood diets that possibly correspond to the family 
diet. The extent of the offset aligns with expectations for exclusively 
breastfed infants and their mothers (Fogel et al. 1989; Fuller et al. 2006; 
Howcroft 2013; Herrscher et al. 2017). Deviations from expected values 
(2–3 ‰) may arise from individual physiological differences or varia-
tions in maternal or post-weaning diet. Due to the extensive dental wear 
affecting both enamel and dentin on occlusal surfaces, the first segment 
of most individuals was less than 1 mm in thickness, resulting in the loss 
of information about nutrition during the earliest months of life. 
Consequently, the values measured in the first segments primarily 
reflect dietary patterns during the latter part of the first six months. 
Dental wear has been considered in sampling and the age estimation of 
the samples (Table 2).
The WEAN tool provided estimated weaning ages for five of the in-
dividuals, as the derivatives calculated by the tool to assess the incli-
nation of the values were all negative. Negative derivatives indicate a 
decreasing trend over time, consistent with breastfeeding, whereas 
positive derivatives would suggest an absence of breastfeeding 
(Ganiatsou et al. 2023). These estimations are presented in the discus-
sion. As the program requires profiles with at least five values for 
evaluation (Ganiatsou et al. 2023), it was not possible to estimate the 
weaning age of individual H15 with this method.
The early childhood dietary profiles are presented in Fig. 2. The 
estimated midpoints of development for each sample are plotted from 
left to right on the horizontal axis. The developmental ages of each 
sample are assigned based on the average time of initiation of crown 
development of M1 at birth, and the developmental ages of relevant 
anatomical landmarks (CEJ, apex) as approximated by AlQahtani et al. 
(2010). This is with the exception of individual H15, whose samples 
were aged according to modification of the method suggested by Eerk-
ens et al. (2011). Due to variation in tooth development between 
individuals, the ages are approximate, which makes the age estimates 
for weaning less comparable. The δ15N and δ13C values, which reflect 
the average diet during the development of each segment, are plotted on 
the vertical axes. The individual mean post-weaning δ15N values 
calculated by WEAN and the average ẟ13C values from the last two 
segments of adults (n  5,   21.5 ‰) are shown as horizontal reference 
lines. For H15, the average of the post-weaning δ15N values of other 
individuals is used. The weaning age estimation by WEAN is presented 
as a vertical line.
4. Discussion
Recent advancements in mass spectrometry and dentin sampling 
techniques have significantly improved the precision of estimating 
developmental ages for dentin micro-samples. Czermak et al. (2018,
2020) and Curtis et al. (2022) have introduced sampling methods, such 
as using biopsy punches and cutting along dentin growth lines, to 
improve the accuracy of temporal representativity of the dentin stable 
isotope values (cf. Cheung et al. 2022). While these approaches offer 
greater accuracy, they are technically complex and require specialized 
laboratory tools, which were unavailable for this study. Additionally, 
the preservation of skeletal material in Finland is often poor due to 
acidic soils, limiting the stable isotope analyses of older human remains. 
For these reasons, we used the traditional method in which the studied 
samples are larger.
This study aimed to observe the early childhood dietary histories of 
individuals who lived in medieval and post-medieval Finland. While the 
small sample size hinders drawing broad conclusions about past diets, 
these findings provide valuable insights into a little-known aspect of life 
in medieval Finland. Such studies are particularly challenging due to the 
poor preservation of unburnt bones in Finnish soil (see Moilanen, 2021: 
31–32), which limits the availability of suitable material for analysis. Of 
the 17 excavated individuals, only six had sufficiently well-preserved 
first molars for inclusion in this study. Despite these limitations, the 
data offer a rare glimpse into early childhood nutrition during this 
period.
The early childhood dietary profiles indicate that all six individuals 
were initially breastfed, though the duration of their weaning periods 
varied (Table 3). After weaning, dietary protein was likely 
Table 3 (continued )
Grave Most likely weaning age based on visual 
observation 
Most likely weaning age based on WEAN (
Ganiatsou et al. 2023) 
Interpretation
during their first months of life. Weaning likely 
began early and cessation of breastfeeding occurred 
soon after their first birthday.
health and susceptibility to illness. The isotopic 
profile also shows a pattern around 2 to 3 years of age 
that may indicate a period of malnutrition. This is 
reflected in the enrichment of 15N and depletion of 
13N atoms in developing tissues, likely caused by the 
recycling of amino acid nitrogen and the utilization of 
stored lipids during metabolic stress (see e.g., 
Neuberger et al. 2013; Mekota et al. 2006; 2009).
H15 (Early 
19th 
century)
This individual, who died during their early 
childhood (Table 1), likely experienced an initial 
period of exclusive breastfeeding during the 
formation of the first segment, corresponding to 
approximately the first six months of life. A decline 
of 3.5 ‰ in δ15N values from the first to the third 
segment, where the lowest value is observed, 
suggests that breastfeeding ceased or was 
significantly reduced shortly after the first birthday.
The analysis with the WEAN tool was impossible for 
this individual.
The δ15N values rise again in the fourth segment, 
which formed shortly before the individual’s death. 
As with the higher than 3 ‰ δ15N value offset between 
the first and the third segment, this re-elevation may 
reflect increased systemic stress in the months leading 
up to death. Elevated δ15N values in incremental 
tissues are often linked to physiological stress (
Neuberger et al. 2013). Alternatively, the increase 
might indicate that breast milk consumption was 
resumed to support recovery from a chronic condition 
(cf. Wood et al. 1992). Historically, breast milk was 
sometimes considered medicinal, even for adults (
Wickes 1953; Olai 2008 [1578]: 29, 69). On the other 
hand, according to folklore, the death of a fully 
breastfed child was believed to pose a danger to the 
mother, which may have led to weak or sickly 
children being given water in addition to, or instead 
of, breast milk (Paulaharju 1924: 40).
T. Vare and U. Nordfors                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
6 
predominantly sourced from farm animals. The relatively low values 
measured in the ninth and tenth segments of the studied individuals 
(δ13C   21.3  0.9 ‰; δ15N 9.3  1.2 ‰; Fig. 3) suggest limited reliance 
on aquatic species, which typically exhibit higher values due to the 
complexity of trophic relations in such environments (e.g. Katzenberg 
1989). In particular, the δ15N values are unusually low compared to 
contemporary archaeological samples from Finland (for example, Eura 
Luistari and Ii Hamina), likely reflecting differences in the dietary use of 
aquatic and semi-aquatic species (see Etu-Sihvola 2022; Vare et al. 
2022a; Lahtinen & Salmi 2019). Each grave is presented in Table 3
chronologically, from the oldest to the youngest.
To summarise the findings presented in Table 3, all three individuals 
from the 13th century and one from the 17th century appear to have 
been breastfed for approximately two years, possibly even longer. Only 
H16 and H15, both of whom died in childhood, were breastfed for a 
shorter duration, with exclusive breastfeeding lasting six months and 
weaning occurring around their first birthday.
Written sources on breastfeeding practices in Finland are scarce, 
especially those extending beyond the past few centuries. Even in more 
recent centuries, breastfeeding customs varied significantly across re-
gions and time periods. These practices were shaped not only by broader 
societal trends but also by individual and personal circumstances. In 
medieval Europe, the church actively promoted breastfeeding, and a 
13th-century Norwegian law book specifically recommended it for 
newborns (Thorvaldsen 2008). Mothers were generally expected to 
breastfeed their infants, as inspired by the Virgin Mary, although 
members of the elite often employed wet nurses (Mocholí Martínez 
2023). Breastfeeding was regarded as beneficial for both health and 
moral development, with the belief that it could shape a child’s char-
acter (van der Lugt 2019). Stable isotope analyses on medieval in-
dividuals indicate that the duration of breastfeeding varied, with 
cessation commonly occurring between the third and fourth year of life 
(Bourbou et al. 2013; Burt 2013).
Occasionally, women may have refrained from breastfeeding due to 
economic pressure or cultural influences that deemed breastfeeding 
undesirable, leading to the adoption of artificial feeding methods 
(Thorvaldsen 2008). In the Early Modern Period, weaning very young 
infants was particularly common among the Nordic bourgeoisie. In rural 
areas, breastfeeding often ended early because mothers were required to 
work in the fields during the summer months (Turpeinen 1987). Infants 
from lower socio-economic classes in the coastal town of Rauma, 
Finland, around the turn of the 19th century were typically breastfed for 
approximately six months, followed by a weaning process that 
continued until the end of the second year of life (Vare et al. 2022b). 
Fig. 3. The dentin serial values within the local food web, reconstructed utilising the bone collagen stable isotope values measured in Finnish archaeological (Iron 
Age to Post-Medieval Period) or ecological (modern) animal remains collected from the dIANA database (Blauer et al. 2016; Etu-Sihvola et al. 2019; Lahtinen & Salmi 
2019). The annual correction factors introduced by McCarroll and Loader (2004) were added to the modern δ13C values to make them correspond to the pre- 
industrial era values.
T. Vare and U. Nordfors                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
7 
This breastfeeding duration is shorter than that observed in most in-
dividuals in this study, though it aligns with the profile of H2.
The introduction of artificial feeding methods contributed to a 
decline in breastfeeding rates despite efforts to promote its benefits. In 
Finland, infant mortality remained high until the late 19th century, 
partly due to unhygienic conditions and harmful feeding practices. 
Substituting breast milk with animal milk was sometimes linked to this 
high mortality. Babies were often fed animal milk using cow horns fitted 
with leather teats, which were unhygienic and prone to contamination 
with harmful bacteria, exposing infants to infections (Brandstrom 1984; 
Turpeinen 1987). While breastfeeding likely improved child survival 
rates, the relationship is not straightforward. Individual H15 was one of 
several 2–3-year-old children who died in Palkane between 1810 and 
1841. Parish records from Palkane (NAF 1711–1908) indicate that 21.5 
% of children in this age group succumbed to intestinal ailments during 
the period. However, whether H15 was among these cases remains 
uncertain, as such acute infections would hardly have left evidence in 
the individual’s isotopic profile (Craig-Atkins 2018). The causes of in-
fant mortality vary; for example, the study by Nenko et al. (2021) found 
that in historical Finland, children with a younger sibling born less than 
24 months later faced a higher risk of death. Therefore, the early 
cessation of breastfeeding seen in H15′s profile (Fig. 2) could also be 
related to the birth of a younger sibling.
5. Conclusion
All six individuals were likely exclusively breastfed during infancy, 
though the duration of their weaning periods varied. Two individuals 
from the 13th century (H9, H6) and one from the 17th century (H11) 
were breastfed for approximately two years, consistent with medieval 
European norms. For one medieval individual (H2), the duration of 
exclusive breastfeeding remains uncertain due to severe dental wear 
that obscures data from their earliest months. However, weaning ap-
pears to have ended around the second birthday. In contrast, the two 
individuals who died during childhood (H15 and H16) in the late 18th 
and early 19th centuries had significantly shorter breastfeeding periods, 
likely ending around their first birthday. In the harsh conditions of the 
past, this relatively brief breastfeeding duration may have impacted 
their survival. For H16, the rapid weaning may have contributed to 
weakened health, while the isotopic profile of H15, who was approxi-
mately 2.5 years old at death, indicates increased systemic stress in the 
months preceding their death.
The isotopic values of the medieval individuals (H9, H6, H2) suggest 
that their weaning diets differed from their post-weaning/nursing 
womens’ diets, although the effect of malnutrition should also be 
considered. For individuals H9 and H6, the protein sources in their 
weaning foods may have been distinct from those consumed by their 
mothers. In the case of H2, the weaning diet may have included 13C-rich 
sources. Especially H2 shows evidence of nutritional or physiological 
stress during early childhood, as indicated by linear enamel hypoplasia 
(Fig. 4) observed in their canines. This stress may be linked to challenges 
associated with the weaning process.
Although the small sample size limits broad generalizations, the 
observed differences may still hold significance. With a larger dataset, it 
would be possible to investigate factors such as the influence of the 
baby’s sex on the duration of breastfeeding and to identify broader 
temporal trends in breastfeeding practices. Our findings contribute 
valuable insights into past diets in Finland, where the poor preservation 
of skeletal material in archaeological contexts often limits the scope of 
biochemical analyses.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Tiina Vare: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, 
Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. Ulla 
Nordfors: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visual-
ization, Project administration, Investigation, Conceptualization.
Funding
Academy of Finland decision number 323428, Jenny and Antti 
Wihuri Foundation, and Human Diversity consortium, Profi7 program 
by Research Council of Finland, grant 352727.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence 
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Dr. Andrius Garbaras from the Mass Spectrometry 
Laboratory, Department of Nuclear Research, State Research Institute, 
Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Vilnius Lithuania. We also 
thank PhD Ronan O’Sullivan for kindly reviewing the language of the 
manuscript.
Fig. 4. Linear Enamel Hypoplasia in the lower canines of individual H2.
T. Vare and U. Nordfors                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
8 
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. 
org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105113.
Data availability
Data is available in the article.
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T. Vare and U. Nordfors                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 63 (2025) 105113 
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