Imagining the Future in Today’s China 
University Students’ Images of the Future 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Centre for East Asian Studies 
Master's thesis  
 
 
 
Author(s): 
Anni-Lotta Simpanen 
 
 
 
27.02.2025 
Turku 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The originality of this thesis has been checked in accordance with the University of Turku quality 
assurance system using the Turnitin Originality Check service. 
 
 
Master's thesis  
 
Subject: Master’s Degree Programme in East Asian Studies 
Author(s): Anni-Lotta Simpanen 
Title: Imagining the Future in Today’s China: University Students’ Images of the Future 
Supervisor(s): Lauri Paltemaa 
Number of pages:  91 
Date: 27.02.2025 
 
In recent years, worry about youth’s hopelessness about the future has been on the rise. In China, the 
youth were affected, for instance, by the Covid-19 pandemic and related policies, followed by a record 
high youth unemployment rate. Simultaneously, the Chinese youth have been expected to carry out the 
‘Chinese Dream’. In this thesis, I investigated what Chinese university students think and feel about 
the future, and most of all, what their probable and preferred images of the future were like. The study 
was conducted through an online survey. On average, the respondents perceived future of the world as 
slightly more uncertain than their own future, and they were slightly more optimistic about their own 
future than the future of the world. Additionally, half of the participants indicated a rather weak sense 
of agency. Concerning sources of views and opinions about the future, the respondents encountered 
them most often in social media. Trough thematic analysis and Causal Layered Analysis (CLA), I 
found that images of probable and preferred futures an individual held were often similar. From the 
data, I identified a total of three (3) different images. The most common was an image of a high-tech 
society. In this image, progress and development had occurred in most areas of life and the society, 
and as the title suggests, advanced technology played a significant role in the society and daily life. 
The second most common image was of a harmonious world – a sustainable and peaceful globalised 
world where people led meaningful lives. The least common image was titled times of change due to 
respondents describing societal issues, unrest, disconnection, and chaos. Overall, China was depicted 
as both a powerful country with high potential for innovativeness and achieving its aims, while also 
navigating challenges brought by systemic issues and domestic tensions. The results imply a complex 
societal landscape, where optimism about progress, harmonious relations, sustainable lifestyles, and 
technological advancements coexists with awareness of inequality, environmental issues, as well as 
potential crises and instability. Due to a small sample size (N: 34), the results are not generalisable, but 
the study provides a snapshot – a localised and time-bound depiction of values, experiences, and 
perceptions among the participants. The research holds significance through informing about the 
appropriateness of the research design in the context of China, and the results could be used as a basis 
of further studies in larger samples. 
 
 
Key words: Images of the Future, Chinese Youth, Post-00s Generation, Critical Futures Studies, 
Causal Layered Analysis, Chinese Futures 
 
 
  
 
 
Table of contents 
1 Introduction 5 
2 Background 8 
2.1 Defining Images of the Future 8 
2.2 Combining East Asian Studies and a Futures Approach 11 
2.2.1 Critical Futures Studies and Causal Layered Analysis 11 
2.2.2 Thinking ‘Futures’ in East Asia 14 
2.2.3 Future Studies as a Research field in East Asia 16 
2.3 Images of the Future 18 
2.3.1 Types and Characteristics of Images of the Future 18 
2.3.2 Formation of Images of the Future 20 
2.4 East Asian Futures 22 
2.4.1 Images of the Future of China 22 
2.4.2 Youth’s Images of the Future: Research from Mainland China and Taiwan 23 
2.5 Chinese Youth and China’s Future Strategies 24 
2.5.1 Societal Context and Major Events During Post-00s Lifetime 25 
2.5.2 Post-00s Generation: Values and Attitudes 27 
2.5.3 The Chinese Dream and Expectations Towards the Youth 30 
2.5.4 Visions, Values, and Strategies for the Future in Today’s China 31 
3 Methodology 34 
3.1 Data Collection and Fieldwork Process 34 
3.1.1 Sample: Size and Characteristics 35 
3.1.2 Research and Survey Design 36 
3.2 Data Analysis 38 
3.2.1 The Data Analysis Process: Thematic Analysis, Descriptive Statistics, and Causal 
Layered Analysis (CLA) 39 
4 Results & Analysis 43 
4.1 Sample Demographics 43 
4.2 Participants’ Future Orientation 45 
4.3 Participants’ Images of the Future 50 
4.3.1 Participants’ Probable and Preferred Images of the Future 51 
4.3.2 Descriptive Statistics about the Three Images 55 
4.4 Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) of Participants’ Images of the Future 58 
 
 
4.4.1 Image A: A High-tech society 58 
4.4.2 Image B: A Harmonious World 63 
4.4.3 Image C: Times of Change 66 
4.5 Discussion: Implications, Limitations, and Significance of the Study 69 
4.5.1 Implications of the Results: General Remarks 70 
4.5.2 Implications of the Results: The Three Images of the Future 73 
4.5.3 Limitations and Significance of the Study 75 
5 Conclusion 78 
Bibliography 82 
Appendices 86 
Appendix 1 Survey in Chinese 86 
Appendix 2 Survey Structure in English 90 
 
5 
 
1 Introduction 
In recent years, worry about youth’s hopelessness about the future has been articulated by 
researchers and amplified by the media across the globe. Researchers have suggested that the 
Covid-19 pandemic alone has triggered tensions in how future and life course is understood 
by an individual of any society (e.g., Settersten et al. 2020, 10). This includes the Chinese 
youth who, whilst having higher living standards than the previous generations, have been 
recently faced with multiple challenges. Besides the pandemic, trends like record-high youth 
unemployment may well have led the youth to change their views about the future and made 
it necessary for them to adjust their future plans. Therefore, research on Chinese youth’s 
relationship with the future is particularly timely. 
In my thesis research, I collected and analysed Chinese university students’ images of the 
future. Images of the future is a key term in futures studies, which in short refers to a person's 
or a community's visualised and conceptual idea of the future (e.g., Mäkelä, Karjalainen & 
Parkkinen 2012, 297). Collecting images of the future provides important information about 
the participants and their political, economic, social, and cultural context in which they live in 
for multiple reasons. Firstly, drawing from previous research, at the individual level, images 
of the future guide actions and planning and can therefore be indicative of what the future 
may hold. Secondly, they reflect the present moment, including one’s wellbeing, values, 
worldview, possibilities, and expectations. Thirdly, they are reflections of wider societal 
phenomena like social or cultural change, environmental attitudes, and social mobility. (Ono 
2003, 737 & 754; Rubin 2013, 40-41). While my research concerned views and visions about 
the future, my primary aim in this study was to learn about the present, as images of the future 
reflect the participants’ views and their context in the here and now.  
As a concept, images of the future gained popularity following Fred Polak’s publications in 
the 1960s. He argued that whether a society holds an image of the future influences the 
longevity and prosperity of the society. In his research, Polak concluded that modern era 
societies lack an image of the future, which leads to their stagnation and decline. From the 
perspective of Polak’s arguments, research on Chinese people’s images of the future is 
particularly interesting. Rather than not being exposed to a vision for the future, the Chinese 
Dream discourse, although rather vague, portrays a vision for many aspects of China’s future, 
from the level of the individual to China’s global role (e.g., Bislev 2015). While China’s rise 
has been a popular topic in international relations and political science, there is lack of 
6 
 
research on the future of China and its people from a social sciences perspective. Thus, there 
is a research gap, which this thesis contributes to.  
In existing research about youth’s images of the future1, researchers have focused on 
analysing the youth’s relationship with the future, the characteristics of their images of the 
future and the influencing factors behind the formation of those images. In addition, they have 
discussed what implications the results have at the level of the individual and the society. The 
implications have been studied, for example, through analysing indicators of social change 
and change in chosen life course trajectories. The aims listed here came to form the research 
aims of my thesis as well.  
To attend to these research aims, my main research question concerned what the participants’ 
images of the future were like (RQ1). More specifically, I focused on their images of probable 
and preferred futures2. As my secondary research questions, I studied what are the underlying 
factors informing the future images (RQ2). To answer this question, I collected participants’ 
self-reported values that shaped the images, the information sources that the participants 
engaged with concerning opinions and views about the future, as well as contemplated how 
social, political, economic, and cultural conditions may have influenced the formation of the 
images. To support the analysis and to allow comparisons with results from previous research, 
besides the research questions presented above, I also explored the question of what the 
participants’ relationship with the future was like. For example, how often they engaged in 
thinking about the future, their felt agency in relation to shaping the future, and how they felt 
about the future (i.e., in terms of optimism or pessimism and certainty or uncertainty). These 
aspects were also important for my research due to providing valuable information about the 
underlying factors that influenced the formation of the images (Remmert, 2020, 11). 
In order to answer the research questions, I collected data through an online survey from 
students studying at a university in a second-tier city in China. I then analysed the data 
through thematic analysis and descriptive statistics. I also used the method of Causal Layered 
Analysis (CLA) to answer the secondary research question about some of the influencing 
factors behind the images. The method has not yet been widely used for the analysis of 
                                                     
1 A detailed review of previous literature is presented in the background chapter (pp. 8-31). 
2 Here, probable futures refer to future scenarios that are most likely to occur, while preferred futures refer to 
scenarios that the participant finds ideal. 
7 
 
individuals’ images of the future, but it has so far proven to produce rich and meaningful 
analysis on the few existing studies (E.g., Kaboli & Tapio 2018; Hoffman 2019). 
Besides being significant in its timeliness and due to the research gap, some studies on the 
topic have been noted to have benefitted the participants. As an example, researchers have 
reported that participation empowered the youth to actively create their preferred futures. 
Additionally, as theorised by Polak (1973), an active relationship to the future holds 
significance not only for an individual, but for the prosperity of the society as a whole. 
Finally, the findings can also be used to clear misconceptions about the young generation, as 
well as to better understand and support the youth. (Gidley & Inayatullah 2002; Chen 2016; 
Ono 2003) For those who work with Chinese youth, even small-scale studies can offer 
actionable insights. 
Finally, due to a small sample size (N: 34), the results are by no means generalisable. The 
research holds significance through providing information about the appropriateness of the 
research design and survey design in the context of China, aiding in the design of further 
studies on the theme. The study also provides a focused snapshot of the values and 
expectations of the Chinese university students participating in this study. As the nature of the 
research is exploratory, it also reveals initial trends and hypotheses worth investigating in 
larger samples. The results of the study should be interpreted as a snapshot – a localised and 
time-bound depiction of this particular group’s experiences and perceptions. While the 
findings cannot be generalised, they do provide a microcosmic view that can enrich 
understanding when combined with other studies or situated within a broader framework. 
8 
 
2 Background 
In this section, I first explore conceptualisations of images of the future and present the 
definition based on which the paper proceeds. While the concept of images of the future is 
rather broad, it has been shaped and defined in various ways over the years. In the following 
chapter, I locate my study in terms of academic fields: at the intersection between futures 
studies and East Asian studies: while the focus of the thesis was on understanding Chinese 
society, the key framework used in the research came from critical futures studies. In this 
section, I also provide a description of the field of critical futures studies and an overview of 
the analysis framework of Causal Layered Analysis (CLA), as well as critical futures studies 
in the context of China. Next, I discuss future studies in the context of China and review 
previous literature related to my research topic and aims. Finally, I end the background 
chapter by describing the target group of my research, including the wider context in which 
they grew up in, previous research on their values, and expectations towards them often 
placed by families and the society. I also describe some of the current initiatives and aims that 
China has and that are to reach completion by 2049. 
 
2.1 Defining Images of the Future 
Research on youth’s relationship with and perceptions concerning the future has been 
conducted with various conceptualisations and frameworks in different fields within social 
sciences. Images of the future is one of these conceptualisations which has been primarily 
developed in the field of futures studies, although used also in various other fields, such as 
youth studies. As noted in the introduction, in simple terms, image of a future is a person's or 
a community's visualised and conceptual idea of the future (Mäkelä, Karjalainen & Parkkinen 
2012, 297). In this chapter, I offer a brief history and an overview of some of the various ways 
in which the term of images of the future has been conceptualised in research3.  
During the mid-1900s, future studies was just becoming an established research field. Images 
of the future were seen as part of strategic planning, policy development, and scientific 
progress due to e.g., the Cold War (Son 2015, as cited in Godhe & Goode 2018, 152). The 
                                                     
3 It should be noted that the concept of ‘images of the future’ itself is very new in comparison to the long history 
of humans envisioning and conceptualising the future. As Godhe and Goode (2018, p. 151) write, ‘the future is 
ancient: prophecy, forecasting and foresight are as old as recorded human history’. 
9 
 
term images of the future itself was not yet commonly used, but there were other terms to 
understand future visions and the process of envisioning the future. For instance, in the 1950s, 
Bertnard De Jouvenel's began to promote the idea of ‘futuribles’, referring to a multiplicity of 
potential futures4 (Malaska & Virtanen 2005, 10).  
Images of the future as a conceptual term started to gain popularity in research after the 
publication of Fred Polak’s Image of the Future (first published in 1955). In his research on 
multiple societies, Polak aimed to connect societies’ images of the future to their rise or fall. 
He argued that the collective vision of the future held by a society influences its prosperity, 
creativity, and direction. According to Polak, where the absence of an image or a negative 
image led to stagnation and decline of a society, a positive or inspiring image led to greater 
innovativeness and societal cohesion. Polak emphasised that images of ideal future guide 
societal and historical progress by helping individuals navigate between present and imagined 
realities. He also saw the images as a product of emotions and imagination rather than logic. 
(Mäkelä, Karjalainen & Parkkinen 2022, 298-299).  
In the 1970s, emphasis on sociocultural aspects emerged and grew as a counterpoint to the 
strategy and forecasting focused mainstream. Scholars proposed that images of the future 
were deeply rooted in cultural narratives, values, and societal identities. Wendell Bell 
suggested that the future can be accessed in the present through thoughts and expectations 
about alternative futures. These thoughts and expectations become visible through decisions 
and choices that people make. The expectations are also embodied by images of the future. In 
fact, Bell suggested images of the future to be a central force driving social change. 
According to Bell, social change is driven by ideas which consist of concepts, values, and 
images – including images of the future. These ideas interact constantly with action, and the 
interaction between the two is what creates social change. (Mäkelä, Karjalainen & Parkkinen 
2022, 300). 
In her research, Elise Boulding focused on the importance of peace and sustainability, urging 
that future images should include values of compassion and awareness of global 
interconnectedness. Her approach emphasised the societal and ethical dimensions of images 
of the future, suggesting that such images reflect and reinforce shared values, beliefs, and 
concerns. (Boulding & Boulding 1994; Boulding 2002) Her work underscored the notion that 
                                                     
4 This too is not a new idea but was popularised by De Jouvenel under this terminology at this point in time. 
10 
 
collective images of the future could inspire social movements and activism, impacting areas 
like environmentalism, anti-war efforts, and human rights.  
“[As] long as we can imagine a better world with minds adequately equipped for 
the complexities of the 21st century, we will be able to work for it.” – Elise 
Boulding (1991, 532) 
From the 1990s onward, critical futures studies emerged as a critique of Western-centric and 
technocratic approaches in the field. Scholars like Richard Slaughter, Sohail Inayatullah, and 
Ziauddin Sardar highlighted that images of the future are not neutral, but rather, they are 
embedded with power dynamics, cultural biases, and ideological assumptions. The focus of 
critical futures studies is to map and analyse images of the future. Critical futures studies 
frames images of the future as tools for exploring and questioning existing power structures, 
pushing for social justice, and empowering marginalised voices. According to critical futures 
studies, images of the future should not simply extrapolate from present trends but should also 
seek to transform societal structures. Such images are referred to as alternative and/or 
transformative images of the future, which hold great importance in critical futures. 
(Inayatullah, 2013; Milojevic & Inayatullah, 2015) 
Finally, I would like to note that it is not only that images of the future are influenced by 
one’s context but that they also influence perceptions and behaviours in the present. For 
instance, Anita Rubin describes images of the future as flexible and deeply personal, shaped 
by identity and knowledge, influencing both conscious and unconscious decision-making in a 
dialectical manner where future images and decisions both influence each other (Mäkelä, 
Karjalainen & Parkkinen 2022, 298; Rubin, 2013). 
Based on previous conceptualisations and with an emphasis on critical futures, for the 
purposes of this thesis, I define images of the future as socially constructed, culturally 
embedded visions or ideas of futures that shape attitudes and behaviours. Drawing from 
critical futures studies, the images reflect underlying power dynamics, cultural values, and 
ideologies that can both constrain and empower societal transformation. In my thesis, I aim to 
uncover some of the underlying assumptions, values, and interests the images are influenced 
by. I am also advocating for pluralistic and inclusive visions that challenge dominant 
narratives and encourage alternative possibilities for the future through studying the future 
images of university students instead of focusing on the dominant images advocated by those 
in power, and through studying not only probable but also preferred futures. 
11 
 
2.2 Combining East Asian Studies and a Futures Approach 
“[…] while there is never a bad time to interrogate imagined futures, now there is 
something especially timely in the call for more sustained and critical scholarly 
engagement with the future in the Humanities and Social Sciences.” – Godhe & 
Goode (2018, 153). 
As my thesis research revolves around collecting and analysing Chinese university students’ 
images of the future, my research is interdisciplinary in that it involves elements from both 
futures studies (especially critical futures studies) and East Asian studies (area studies). While 
futures studies have informed much of my choices concerning methods of analysis and 
theoretical framework, East Asian studies allow for in-depth analysis, enabling a thorough 
understanding of how China’s cultural, societal, economic, and political dimensions may 
interact with the participants’ visions of the future and shape their relationship with the future. 
At the same time, elements of futures studies provide a valuable perspective to current 
Chinese society and possible future trends concerning phenomena such as social and cultural 
change, social mobility, environmental attitudes and more, therefore making a valuable 
contribution to the knowledge base in the field. Therefore, the two fields chosen for this 
research complement each other in research on how future is imagined in today’s China. 
In this section, I first introduce the paradigm of critical futures studies and how the paradigm 
has inspired my research design. I then describe critical futures studies’ analytical framework 
of Causal Layered Analysis which I use in my analysis. I then move on to briefly discuss 
futures as a concept and as a research field in East Asia with a focus on China.  
 
2.2.1 Critical Futures Studies and Causal Layered Analysis 
Within the field of futures studies, my thesis falls under the school of critical futures studies. 
Since the 1970s, this sub-field has been developed by numerous researchers. As of today, 
critical and transformative futures are often described as an emerging direction within the 
field, holding a meaningful position among contemporary futures studies paradigms.  
“From a focus on predicting the future, the modern discipline of futures studies 
has broadened to an exploration of alternative futures and deepened to investigate 
the worldviews and mythologies that underlie possible, probable and preferred 
futures.” – Inayatullah (2018, 64) 
12 
 
Critical future studies examines and questions how societies and different actors within them 
(including individuals) conceptualise and communicate about future. The analysis focuses on 
discourses, images, and ideas about the future generated by social sciences and futurology, 
but also from non-expert domains from science fiction to the public’s views. (Godhe & 
Goode 2018, 152).  
Futures can be categorised based on their likelihood and desirability. Plausible futures 
encompass possibilities that could occur within the bounds of uncertainty, while probable 
futures focus on scenarios that are likely to happen. Possible futures represent the broadest 
spectrum, including all conceivable scenarios, regardless of likelihood. Among these, the 
preferred future reflects the most desired for the future. In existing literature, researchers have 
chosen to focus on one, two, or all of the above three categories. For my thesis, I decided to 
narrow down the scope by focusing on probable and preferred images of the future. 
Methodological choices such as this will be explained in more detail in chapter 3. 
Another central key feature of critical futures studies is questioning prevalent images of the 
future and critically analysing what people think about futures (e.g., Milojevic & Inayatullah, 
2015). In my research, I analysed probable and preferable images of the future through 
performing a Causal Layered Analysis (CLA). This is a critical futures studies analytical 
framework that was introduced by Sohail Inayatullah in the late 1980s (Inayatullah 2019, 3). 
The framework enables the researcher to unpack what shapes images of the future. At its best, 
CLA can be used to reveal intricate influences, allowing an in-depth understanding of the web 
of causal factors that shapes the images. In his article from 2019 Inayatullah outlines the most 
common uses of CLA as follows: ‘1) mapping the present/future; 2) critically unpacking an 
issue; 3) creating a preferred future; 4) reconstruction from an alternative worldview; 5) 
mapping of multiple perspectives leading to a transformed future that integrates difference’ 
(Inayatullah, 2019, 1). These I kept in mind while designing my study, although most 
emphasis was on the first usage. 
The CLA analysis framework consists of four levels, which are commonly referred to as 1) 
litany, 2) systemic causes, 3) worldview, and 4) metaphor and myth. The analysis protocol 
involves moving up and down the levels, starting from the first level of litany. The levels are 
often illustrated as a pyramid or an iceberg to communicate the idea that each level differs in 
terms of their timescales and how visible or apparent their content is (Figure 1). (Inayatullah 
2005, 3 & 6-8) 
13 
 
Figure 1. Sohail Inayatullah’s Causal Layered Analysis Framework* 
 
*CLA framework as described by Sohail Inayatullah (Inayatullah 2005, 6-8). 
 
The first level of litany refers to surface-level most obvious facts, events, and trends. The 
second level of systemic causes involves the analysis of underlying external causes behind the 
litany level. These causes can be, for example, historical, social, cultural, economic, or 
educational. The third level of worldview, again, focuses on a deeper understanding of the 
previous level. Here, worldview refers to the structures and discourses that are beneath the 
systemic causes. Finally, the fourth level of metaphor and myth focuses on mapping what 
underpins cultural and societal narratives of the worldview level. As is rather evident from the 
title of the level, these can be myths, metaphors or archetypes. (Inayatullah 2005, 6-8) As 
mentioned, CLA has not been widely used to analyse individuals’ images of the future yet. In 
the table on the next page (Table 2), I present examples of CLA analysis of individuals’ 
images of the future from previous research to illustrate the method. 
 
 
 
 
 
14 
 
Table 1. Examples of Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) from Previous Research* 
 Tapio & Kaboli (2018, 14) 
Image title: ‘Living with the Chill’ 
Hoffman (2019, 75) 
Image title: ‘2060’ 
Litany ‘War, violence and crime is growing.’  ‘Future oriented policies – for the 
future generations’ 
Systemic 
Causes 
‘Crime is growing as a result of highly 
competitive world and egoism.’  
 
‘Our leaders have a desire for 
postmaterialist values’ 
Worldview ‘Egoism’  
 
‘[…] all the people work together’ 
Myth and 
Metaphor 
‘The dominant theme of the futuristic movies 
is dystopian, deteriorating future’  
‘Heaven on earth’ 
*Not all the descriptions of each level are shown in this table. Rather, one example concerning each 
level was picked from the CLA analysis of the respective images presented in the studies. 
 
2.2.2 Thinking ‘Futures’ in East Asia 
The concepts of ‘the future’ and ‘futures’ carry different meanings in different cultures and 
societies, which may influence images of the future and how the concept is understood. In 
addition, the prevalence of futures studies, futures thinking, and critical thinking in a society 
is one of the factors which may influence participants’ image of the future. These factors also 
provide context for understanding existing literature on images of the future in China and 
more broadly in East Asia, which will be discussed in the next section (2.2). In this section, I 
discuss the concept of futures in East Asia with a focus on China.  
In a previous study, researchers have found that spatially, some Mandarin Chinese speakers 
associate future time as something that is behind and the past as something in front of them 
(Gu, Zheng & Swerts 2019). Linguistically, for instance, character (前, qian) that is also used 
to refer to ‘in front’ (前面, qianmian) is used to refer to the day before yesterday (前天, 
qiantian), and the phrase ‘day after tomorrow’ (后天, hou tian) is expressed through the 
combination of the following: ‘back’ or ‘after’ and ‘day’. Additionally, present, past, and 
future tenses are expressed implicitly through adverbs, context, and the use of time-related 
words. Although spatial understandings of futures was not the focus of my study, it is 
important to understand these nuances and to steer from assuming that time is linear, and 
future is something that awaits somewhere in front.  
15 
 
In his paper from 2014 researcher Bae noted that there is no plural term of ‘futures’ in East 
Asian languages. This would indicate that multiplicity of alternative futures – which is central 
in critical futures studies – is not clearly communicated as an idea using East Asian 
languages. It should however be noted that in languages including Japanese, Korean, and 
Chinese plurality is expressed differently than in many Western languages. In Mandarin 
Chinese, the word for future (未来, weilai) is not specifically singular or plural but could refer 
to either ‘a future’ or ‘futures’.  
 
Figure 2. Average Annual GDP Growth (%) in China 2000 – 2023 (World Bank, 2023) 
 
Moving from linguistics to society and politics, since the start of the reform and opening up 
era in 1978, China’s society’s and economy’s modern history has been market by relatively 
rapid change and economic growth. The years 2001 to 2008 are often referred to as a “Golden 
Years” due to high economic growth rate (see Figure 2), which is a time when the participants 
of my study were born and when they spent their early childhood years. Since then, China’s 
economic growth has been slowing instead of growing. Another notable potential influence 
on the participants’ images of the future comes from the socio-economic context of China 
which is guided by five-year plans designed by the party-state. These may also influence the 
16 
 
way in which the participants viewed pace of time and timescales concerning the future in this 
study. There are also medium- to long-term plans with aims for e.g., 2035 and 2049. These 
are introduced in more detail in Chapter 2.5.4. 
Traditional philosophies and worldviews in China are another aspect to consider – although it 
should be noted that these are by no means the sole factors that define today’s society and 
culture in China. As is commonly known, the most prominent traditional philosophies in 
China include Confucianism and Daoism which I will summarise here based on a paper by 
Liu (1974). Concerning understandings of the future and time, Confucianism traditionally has 
emphasised the continuity of the past. In addition, factors like social harmony and filial piety 
have been emphasised. These could also impact the people’s relationship to time. In Daoism, 
there is also emphasis on living in harmony with the natural flow of events, providing a fluid 
and adaptable approach to the future. Additionally, in Confucianism and Daoism, as well as 
due to the dynastic cycles, time was traditionally viewed as cyclical. As noted, it would be an 
oversimplification to state that the Chinese people’s conception of time is solely based on 
these philosophies, but they were nevertheless considered in analysis of the participants’ 
images of the future as possible influencing factors. 
 
2.2.3 Future Studies as a Research field in East Asia 
In this section, I explore the state of futures thinking and research in East Asia with a focus on 
China. I also briefly discuss the suitability of using CLA as a methodology in research 
concerning China. Starting with terminology, for images of the future, the term 未来图景 
(weilai tujing) is sometimes used to refer to the concept in Mandarin Chinese5. The first two 
characters mean ’future’, while the second two can refer to view, prospects, mental picture or 
landscape (either figuratively referring to a situation or literally to a landscape in a picture). 
Besides images of the future, the same term also refers to ‘futurescaping’6, which is a specific 
design futures methodology involving prototype design and spatial narratives of the future. 
However, there appears to be no other term that would specifically refer to images of the 
future only.  
                                                     
5 As an example, in this article: https://ahybridlab.com/blog/future-triangle . 
6 As an example, in this event advertisement: https://www.bjdw.org/contents/ztzlzx/11783.html . 
17 
 
In East Asia, futures studies is even newer as a formal discipline compared to the rest of the 
world, critical futures studies even more so. Much of futures studies emphasis is either on 
forecasting and strategy or finding ways to improve ideological guidance. There are 
associations and societies for futures work, including China Futures Association (CFA; 中国
期货业协会, Zhongguo qihuoye xiehui), China Society for Futures Studies (CSFC; 中国未来
研究会; Zhongguo weilai yanjiu hui). CSFC was established already in 1979 and has also 
published a journal of future studies since the year 1980 called ‘Future and Development’ (未
来与发展, weilai yu fazhan).  
There are also some futures workshops and related methodologies that have been developed 
in China. As an example, an article from 20217 outlines a research approach utilised in 
community-based activities, which combines exhibition curation, workshops, foresight, 
individual perspectives, and youth storytelling. This method uses collages created by 
workshop participants to explore and understand individual future narratives, aiming to 
extend these insights to the long-term study of youth group futures.  
Tamkang University in Taiwan acts as the most active hub of futures research with a focus on 
critical futures studies. Based on Anthony’s paper (2022), in the mainland, China’s first 
critical futures courses in tertiary education were introduced around five years ago in 2019. 
Overall, futures thinking and critical thinking in general do not have a strong foothold in the 
Chinese education system. Instead, the education system has been described as ’test-oriented, 
teacher-centred, and driven by pressure from society’ as is common to Asian societies (e.g., 
Anthony 2022, 45-49). While during Xi’s era, innovativeness, which requires critical 
thinking, has been emphasised, also contrasting educational guidelines that underline the 
importance of ideological education have been put into place.  
Education is not the only factor that shapes thinking and ideas in a society, but it nevertheless 
has a key role in the process, therefore being indicative of the current prevalence of futures 
studies and the extent of promoting of critical thinking in Chinese society. However, it should 
be noted that futures thinking has existed through time in all cultures long before the creation 
of futures studies as an academic field of study with its terminologies. In research, specific 
                                                     
7 Read more here: https://jfsdigital.org/2021/05/03/年轻人与个体未来叙事-youth-future-and-personal-future-
narratives/  
18 
 
characteristics of images of the future in East Asia beyond futures studies have been explored 
through the lens of local classical texts. These will be discussed in the following section. 
Lastly, I will briefly discuss the appropriateness of using CLA as a methodology in the 
context of China. CLA is a methodology that was developed by Sohail Inayatullah, a 
Pakistani-Australian futurist. It has been widely adapted in various contexts from business 
strategy to research around the world. Coming from the school of critical futures studies, the 
methodology was designed to challenge dominant assumptions about the future, and it does 
not assume a singular, universal vision of the future. Instead, the importance of 
acknowledging multiplicity of futures that reflect different worldviews, discourses and myths 
is emphasised. It is still important to note that the methodology was not specifically designed 
for the context of China by Chinese researchers. Therefore, while the analytical framework 
can serve as powerful tool, it is important to remain sensitive to local context while using it. I 
aim to do this through a careful examination of the participants’ responses, and when 
interpreting the data, applying my knowledge about China. One of my aims for this research 
was also to assess the appropriateness of the method in the Chinese context, therefore not 
assuming that it is one.  
 
2.3 Images of the Future 
Researchers’ conceptualisations of images of the future were introduced in a previous section 
(Chapter 2.1). In this chapter, I will now go into further depth and detail, going over theories 
about types of images in section 2.3.1, and characteristics of images of the future in section 
2.3.2. I will discuss theories and findings from both international and specifically East Asian 
research. 
 
2.3.1 Types and Characteristics of Images of the Future 
A traditional classification of images of the future which continues to influence today’s 
research comes from Fred Polak’s work. He classified images of the future into two main 
types: negative and positive. In addition, he identified two dimensions concerning the extent 
to which future can be influenced in the images: essence and influence. Out of these two 
dimensions, ‘essence’ refers to a predetermined course of events which cannot be changed 
19 
 
while ‘influence’ refers to the extent to which actions can affect the course of events. (Polak, 
1973, 16-17) The four categories of images formed through these two classifications are 
summarised below. While images of the future have been further categorised in later research, 
this classification is useful for mapping basic characteristics of the images and also inspired 
my survey design concerning questions about future orientation and agency. 
a. Essence optimism + influence optimism: world is a good place and people have the 
power to change it for the better, 
b. Essence optimism + influence pessimism: world is a good place, but humans have no 
control over it, 
c. Essence pessimism + influence optimism: world is a bad place, but people have the 
power to change it for the better, 
d. Essence pessimism + influence pessimism: chaos is inevitable, and humans cannot affect 
it. (Polak, 1973, 16-17; Kaboli & Tapio 2018, 3, Table 1.) 
In the early 1970s, researcher Jim Dator developed another categorisation of future images, 
suggesting that all images of the future can be classified into four categories. These are 1) 
growth, 2) collapse, 3) discipline, and 4) transformation. In the first image, ‘growth’ tends to 
refer to continued economic growth. Concerning the second image of ‘collapse’, a range of 
different causes of the collapse can be part of the scenario. These include resource exhaustion, 
military attacks, and economic instability to name a few. The third image, ‘discipline’, refers 
to a scenario where society has become organised around an overarching set of values. These 
are usually traditional or ancient value sets. In the fourth image, ‘transformation’, new forms 
of beliefs, behaviour and organisation have emerged and shape the scenario. (Park, 2013; 
Dator, 2019.) 
In his paper, Park (2013) explored futures studies in East Asia by looking at Dator’s four 
images through the lens of Zhuangzi – a foundational text of Daoism which is highly regarded 
in East Asia. The researcher argues that ‘bird’s-eye view’ is central to developing an East 
Asian understanding of futures. Park justifies this perspective in the prevalence of a holistic, 
relation-centred approach in East Asia, in which attention is focused on relationships between 
objects and the field to which they belong rather than primarily on the objects themselves. He 
summarises East Asian futures thinking as having the following characteristics: 1) exploring 
20 
 
appropriate8 alternative futures instead of mutually exclusive scenarios, 2) ‘finding an 
aesthetic moment9 rather than a predetermined moment’, 3) “dancing” with chaos instead of 
trying to control it, and 4) ‘using both the useful and the useless’10 (Park 2013, 19). Although 
these had only a minor influence on my research design (read more in Chapter 3) I considered 
these characteristics during the analysis of the participant’s images of the future, which can be 
read in Chapter 4. 
Overall, during the analysis phase, I reflected on the extent to which the types and 
characteristics of images presented above corresponded to the participants’ images. Besides 
the types of images of the future, it is important to investigate what are the ways in which the 
contents of images of the future have been analysed in research. In the next section, I discuss 
what is understood as forming images of the future in this thesis based on previous research. 
 
2.3.2 Formation of Images of the Future 
In the existing literature about youth’s images of the future, researchers have focused on 
analysing the youth’s relationship with the future and the characteristics of their images of the 
future. Their relationship with the future and characteristics of the images have mostly been 
studied by assessing different aspects of the images of the future. These aspects have been 
summarised by Ono (2003, 741) and are listed below. As noted, these aspects were accounted 
for in the research- and survey design of my thesis.  
1) Time: past, present, or future, 
2) Proximity: in terms of time, short range or long range, 
3) Nature: positive or negative, 
4) Scale: personal, national, or global, 
5) Familiarity: i.e., similarity to the past and the present, 
                                                     
8‘Appropriate’ signifies something mutually helpful and beneficial in contrast to ‘exclusive’, which signifies a 
zero-sum game (Park, 2013, 19). 
9 ‘Aesthetic moment’ refers to a moment that cannot be predetermined but “feels good” (Park, 2013, 20). An 
aesthetic moment could therefore be described as spontaneous and “correct” in an intuitive sense. 
10 This refers to overcoming the dichotomy of ‘useful’ and ‘useless’ as what these two categories contain 
fluctuates (Park, 2013, 22-24). 
21 
 
6) Occurrence: i.e., do the images concern possible, probable or preferred futures. 
(Ono 2003, 741.) 
Concerning the different aspects of images, researchers have noticed that participants’ images 
tend to contain contradictions, and that an individual may hold multiple different images 
simultaneously (Rubin, 2013, 40-41). Besides the different aspects of images, the 
contradictions may manifest in different themes that the images contain. As an example, 
experts have speculated that the pandemic may have increased tensions concerning one’s 
vision of the future, for example, in terms of ’individualism and collectivism, autonomy and 
interdependence, freedom and control, [and] rights and responsibilities’ in all societies 
(Settersten et al. 2020, 2 & 10). 
As a basic assumption, I approach the future as something that is socially constructed – that 
an individual’s view of the future is shaped by a complex interplay of factors related to the 
individual. These include societal, cultural, economic, educational, environmental, and 
political factors. This is also the theoretical basis applied in most of the existing literature on 
similar research topics. Due to this theoretical starting point, other than the aspects of the 
images, the influencing factors behind the formation of the images are also an important part 
of analysing images of the future. The influencing factors include one’s values and felt 
agency, as well as different sources of information, such as education and the media. The 
importance of these aspects in research of images of the future is apparent, for example, from 
the analysis method employed in this thesis, as analysing what shapes the images is central to 
CLA. 
“The identification of alternative futures is […] a fluid dance of structure (the 
weights of history) and agency (the capacity to influence the world and create 
desired futures).” – Inayatullah (2013, 37) 
Lastly, a considerable feature of previous studies has been discussing the implications of the 
results concerning all the aspects discussed above at both the individual and the societal level. 
At the individual level, images of the future guide actions and planning and therefore are 
indicative of what the future may hold. Moreover, they reflect the present moment, including 
one’s wellbeing, values, worldview, possibilities, and expectations. At the same time, they are 
also reflections of wider societal phenomena like social or cultural change, sustainability, and 
social mobility. (e.g., Ono 2003, 754; Rubin, 2013, 40-41).  
22 
 
The types and characteristics of images of the future summarised above influenced my 
research as I aimed to design the survey so that would allow me to reflect the results of my 
study against these existing theories and categorisations. In the next section, I discuss key 
results from previous research from East Asia concerning the characteristics and aspects of 
images discussed in this chapter. 
 
2.4 East Asian Futures 
In East Asia, critical futures research on images of the future has mostly been conducted with 
a focus on the society and nation-state as a whole or from an international relations 
perspective. This section begins with introduction of these studies. I then continue with 
discussing research from Taiwan and Mainland China concerning youth’s images as well as 
hopes and fears concerning the future. The findings summarised in this section were used to 
reflect upon, interpret, and discuss the results of my thesis research in Chapter 4. 
 
2.4.1 Images of the Future of China 
A few studies have been conducted to analyse images of the future of China. In her 2012 
study, Hoffman combined elements of international relations and futures studies to analyse 
what Hoffman refers to as stories of China’s rise in China and in the West. These consist of 
the 1) Western perspective to ‘China Threat’, 2) Chinese perspective to ‘China Threat’, as 
well as 3) an alternative future of peaceful development (Hoffman 2012, 4). The first contains 
the idea that China is becoming a potential hegemon, and it can and should be stopped. The 
second story contains the idea of China bringing a new ‘golden age’ rather than being a threat, 
unlike Western powers. In this image, China strives for recognition in international 
institutions. In the third story, focus is on economic growth, global peace and harmony, and 
respect towards ‘China’s cultural and civilisational superiority’ from the international 
community (Hofman 2012, 4). In an earlier study, Anthony (2009) analysed two alternative 
futures for China: a dystopia of a ‘Brave New China’ and a utopia of a ‘Harmonious Society’. 
While the former was described as a market driven scenario where people have become 
alienated from nature, the latter scenario was ’driven by responsibility to humanity and 
23 
 
nature’ (Anthony 2009, 23). In these studies, CLA was used as part of the methodological 
tools to investigate the images, as I chose to do in my study as well.  
In addition to these images at the national and societal level, Callahan (2012) has pointed out 
that China contains multiple futures which are advocated by different groups of experts. In his 
study from 2012, Callahan also notes a general shift from viewing the West as the future to 
viewing China as the future and recognising it as an alternative to the future of the world. 
Callahan’s writing also supports the significance of my study: if the perception of China as 
the future has increased, so has the significance of what that may hold from the perspective of 
the youth – those who, in a way, are becoming China’s future. 
If anything, since the publication of the studies introduced in this section, debates and 
speculation about the Chinese vision for its own and the world’s future has intensified. While 
my research is not necessarily focused on national, international, nor expert-level future 
images in particular, it is likely that aspects of the findings of these studies will be present in 
the participants’ images of the future in my research as they also contained images common in 
China. 
 
2.4.2 Youth’s Images of the Future: Research from Mainland China and Taiwan 
As noted, some research has been conducted concerning Taiwanese youth’s images of the 
future, and on Mainland Chinese youth’s future orientation. This refers to what one thinks and 
feels about the future. One way in which future orientation is studied is through collecting 
data about participants’ hopes and fears concerning the future. (Seginer 2008, 10.) While 
studies on Mainland Chinese youth’s future orientation were not specifically focused on 
images of the future, research on future orientation is also relevant in relation to the research 
topic of my thesis as future orientation is connected to one’s images of the future11. In this 
section, I present relevant findings in relation to my thesis from the existing studies.  
One central aspect of images of the future is the scale: to what extent one is concerned with 
their own future versus the more general future, such as the future of their community, 
society, nation or the world. In 2003, Ono conducted a case study in Taiwan and the US, 
analysing university students’ images of the future. In the study, out of both the Taiwanese 
                                                     
11 Influencing and being influenced by images of the future. 
24 
 
and US participants, half chose to discuss the global future when given the choice to discuss 
anything about the future (Ono 2003, 754-757). In Mainland China, research on Chinese 
adolescents' future orientation has revealed that most adolescents’ hopes and fears related to 
the general or collective future. Additionally, the researchers concluded that hopes and fears 
concerning the self were far fewer than those related to education, career and family. (Zhang 
et al. 2015, 625-626; Zhao et al. 2018, 67.) This finding aligns with the idea about Chinese 
people approaching the future from a holistic, relationship-centred viewpoint, as there is more 
emphasis on inter-personal role and one’s societal role than for instance, one’s wellbeing, 
personality, and so on (Lyu, Du & Rios 2019, 2; Bae 2013).  
Another aspect of images of the future is where the images fall when placed in a continuum 
between optimism and pessimism. In a study conducted by Chen (2016), the researcher 
discovered that Taiwanese elite high school students were interested in and optimistic about 
the global future, the future of the environment, and their personal future. Interestingly, 
drawing from studies conducted in the West, Rubin concludes that youth tend to have more 
pessimistic views about the general future in comparison to their own future (Rubin 2013, 40-
41). It is possible that recent events such as the pandemic and related policies, as well as the 
record high youth unemployment may have resulted in the youth holding more pessimistic 
images about both the general and their own futures. Experts have hypothesised that at least 
the level of uncertainty felt towards the future has increased in all societies due to the 
pandemic alone (Settersten et al. 2020, 2 & 10). 
 
2.5 Chinese Youth and China’s Future Strategies  
The participants of my study were Chinese university students born between the years 2002 
and 2006 and were 18 to 22-year-olds when the data was collected. In China, the generation 
born between 2000 and 2010 is referred to as the ’post-00s generation’ (零零后, lingling 
hou). I would also like to note that the participants of my study were all attending a public 
Chinese university in a second-tier city at the time of the study. In this chapter, I first give an 
overview of social factors and societal events during the participants lifetime. I then discuss 
previous studies on the post-00s values and attitudes, the Chinese Dream discourse and 
expectations towards the youth, and lastly other initiatives, strategies, and values promoted by 
CCP. I considered these as possible factors that could be present in the data collected for this 
25 
 
study, as they all concern either the participants’ age group or the context in which they live 
in.  
 
2.5.1 Societal Context and Major Events During Post-00s Lifetime 
In this section, I describe common life experiences that the members of the generation often 
share. This overview is not comprehensive but summarises some of the main influences 
during the participants lifetime. Although in this and upcoming sections I discuss the 
generation as a whole, it should be noted that these are merely generalisations, and diversity 
exists among the members of China’s post-00s generation. For example, there are likely great 
differences due to factors such as geographical location within China and the family’s 
socioeconomic status.  
The post-00s’ life course has been greatly affected by one-child policy12, the era of reform 
and opening-up, as well as China’s rapid economic growth (e.g., Li 2020, 2). In addition, the 
post-00s childhoods were also situated in the era of globalisation and internet which 
distinguishes the generation from older generations as having had more exposure to overseas 
cultures (e.g., Yang 2022). As mentioned previously, the generation was also born during the 
“Golden Years” of economic growth in China. 
According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China, over 60% of the post-00s are from 
single child families, which has likely had an impact on their upbringing, intrafamily 
relationships and family structures. Researchers have suggested that among other things, this 
has resulted in many parents investing more in their child’s education. (Li 2020, 3.) Education 
is also important from early stages onwards due to competition in high school and university 
admittance. Today, especially wealthy families tend to prefer to send their children either to 
study abroad or to a Chinese-foreign partnership universities which are often costly (e.g., 
Anthony 2022, 50). Consequently, the pressure to perform well academically is also high. 
Additionally, while post-00s families have had better living conditions and income levels, 
also living costs have increased during their lifetime – especially in the cities (Li 2020, 2-4). 
In research from China, it has been argued that the generation holds advantages in the job 
market due to having better access to higher education (Li 2020, 5). While this can be true, in 
                                                     
12 The one-child policy was in place from 1979 to 2015. 
26 
 
addition to competition concerning education, there is also high competition in the job 
market. As the participants of my study are university students, they are soon to transition into 
work life where opportunities are scarce, and the youth unemployment rate is high. China’s 
last reported youth unemployment levels from June 2023 were record high at 21.3% (Statista 
2024; see Figure 3).13 While broader access to higher education may indeed have led to a 
more competent young workforce, it has also led to more competition in the job market, as 
well as a higher supply of professionals in comparison to the demand and available suitable 
jobs.  
 
Figure 3. Monthly Surveyed Urban Unemployment Rate of People Aged 16 to 24 in China from 
November 2021 to November 2024 (Statista 2024) 
 
National Bureau of Statistics of China. (December 19, 2024). Monthly surveyed urban unemployment 
rate of people aged 16 to 24 in China from November 2021 to November 2024 [Graph]. In Statista. 
Retrieved January 07, 2025, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/1244339/surveyed-monthly-youth-
unemployment-rate-in-china/ 
 
                                                     
13 After that, youth unemployment levels were not made public for six months. From January 2024 onwards, the 
rates have been published but calculated using a different methodology that has provided much more positive 
statistics. 
27 
 
Li (2020, 5) also argues that due to their generation’s lived experience, the Chinese 
population born between 1980 and 2010 are ’more capable of adapting to changes in dramatic 
social transformations’ in comparison to older generations (Li, 2020, 5). He adds that the 
competency of the younger generations has led to a weakening sense of intergenerational 
hierarchy (Li, 2020, 5). This could lead to the older generations having less of a say 
concerning, for example, the young generations’ life-course trajectories.  
Finally, the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic should be also considered. China’s strict 
lockdown policies lasted from early 2020 to late 2022. During this time, the participants of 
this study were teenagers, as they were all born between 2002-2006. The overall consensus is 
that the pandemic and related policies had various negative impacts on the youth. The topic 
has also already been researched, but mostly concerning mental health, which I will not go 
into depth here. However, for instance a study by Jiang et al. (2022) involved studying the 
impact of the pandemic on teenagers’ family relationships. The teenage participants reported 
significant negative change concerning their relationship to their parents. Teenagers’ family 
relationships were also found to be impacted by the pandemic the most out of different age 
groups14. This also aligns with findings of Chen et al. (2020, 4), as the researchers note that 
staying at home with parents under lockdown policies exacerbated familial tensions for 
teenagers and also increased their mental health symptoms. Finally, it is likely that the 
tensions in values and attitudes that one has have been intensified by the pandemic, as already 
noted in previous sections (e.g., Settersten et al. 2020). Unfortunately, no comprehensive 
studies were found about post-00s views about the future nor their values from a period prior 
to the pandemic. 
 
2.5.2 Post-00s Generation: Values and Attitudes 
In this chapter, I explore the values and attitudes of the post-00s generation based on previous 
research, after which I discuss expectations projected towards the youth in Chinese society. At 
the time of writing this thesis (2024), members of the post-00s generation are 13-24 years old. 
It is therefore understandable although unfortunate that the existing research about this age 
group’s values and attitudes is not extensive. Studies from China take on quite an optimistic 
tone concerning the youth or suggest improvements to their ideological education. Due to 
                                                     
14 The other age groups were unmarried young adults, married adults, and grandparents. 
28 
 
their lack of credibility, such as lack of openness about methodological choices, these studies 
will not be discussed here. The only studies conducted that do not exercise these perspectives 
are those that focus on activism and youth sub-cultures. To what extent such groups were 
present in the sample is unclear, but I assumed that they would constitute a minority at most. 
Overall, research concerning the values of the post-00s is scarce, but I present here an 
overview of the most relevant studies. 
Based on Witte (2004), post-materialism as a concept and hypothesis became popular in the 
late 1970s through Ronald Inglehart’s work. It refers to changes in worldview towards more 
emphasis on self-expression and quality of life over economic and material gains. These 
changes were proposed as being brought by industrialisation. The hypothesis has been also 
questioned and seen as outdated by some. In my thesis, I see it as a useful categorisation of 
values, which allows comparisons as it has been used in research and articles concerning post-
00s. Post-materialism has commonly been connected to the generation Z15 in general, for 
example in media in the West. Similar hypothesis has been raised concerning the Chinese 
post-00s generation, although also materialist values have been argued to be common 
amongst them. While desiring worldly success, material abundance, ease and convenience, 
the post-00s also seek true happiness and high quality of life and are concerned about issues 
like environmental protection (Yang, 2022). Additionally, Li (2020, p. 11) notes that while 
Chinese youth have a tendency to overspend, the young generations also hold a variety of 
nonmaterial aspirations.  
Similar claims have been made by Wang and Yu in their study from 2021. According to the 
researchers, the participants felt that their material needs had been met, and self-expression, 
personal happiness and life quality, belonging and self-esteem were noted as important for 
them (Wang & Yu, 2021, p. 169). Consumption was described as important – but as a way to 
‘enjoy the present moment or pursue a better quality of life’ (p. 168). Aesthetics matter, and 
include ‘ecological culture, liveability, pursuit of beauty, [and] decoration of surrounding 
environment’ (Wang & Yu, 2021, p. 168). Additionally, participants valued humanistic 
knowledge, and interpersonal communication skills, and a sense of social belonging was also 
important to them.  
                                                     
15 Generation Z covers a wider age range than what is referred to China as post-00s, as people born between 
1997-2012 are commonly attributed as ‘the Gen Z’. 
29 
 
In his paper, Remmert (2020) concludes that Chinese urban young adults are more confident 
to not conform entirely to parental expectations, showing increasing interest towards pursuing 
individual aspirations and autonomy. A weakening sense of intergenerational hierarchy was 
also noted by Li (2020, p. 5). In addition, Wang and Yu’s (2021, p. 169) results align with 
individualisation: 
‘Most young people have proper individual values, regard social contribution as 
the standard of value judgement, and emphasize the significance of their own 
efforts’ – Wang & Yu (2021, 169) 
These findings support the hypothesis about individualisation. However, researchers have also 
argued against the individualisation thesis. In his study, Barbalet (2016) argues that several 
phenomena such as family transformations, labour migration, and rights awareness are linked 
to family obligations and commitment to the collective good and therefore speak against the 
theory of individualisation instead of supporting the thesis. All in all, I considered the 
scholarly debate especially while delving into the causes behind the images of the future 
while performing the Causal Layered Analysis (CLA). 
In a recent study from 2023 that was conducted using open-ended questions, the Chinese 
general public was found to value the following: 1) self-fulfilment, 2) self-cultivation, 3) 
social development, and 4) interpersonal ethics (Pan & Huang 2023). The researchers write 
that diversity existed between participants and that ‘some of the socially advocated values 
have been internalized into the value system of individuals’ (Pan & Huang 2023, 1). 
Unfortunately, the study did not further categorise the sample based on participants’ 
characteristics and therefore it is difficult to draw conclusions about the post-00s.  
In an earlier section, I noted that it is common for contradictions to exist in images of the 
future and for an individual to hold multiple different images. The contradictions in images of 
the future may manifest due to different values and attitudes that the participants carry. 
Concerning China’s post-00s generation, it is evident from recent survey studies that the 
youth have a mix of values. According to the results of a Shanghai Academy of Social 
Sciences survey on ’cognitive features and thinking patterns of the post-00s generation’, the 
post-00s’ hold a mix of modern and traditional values. This does not necessarily present as a 
divide between members of the generation, as individuals tend to hold both, rather than one or 
the other. (Yang 2022.) Contradictions were therefore one of the attributes noted to possibly 
show in the data in this thesis.  
30 
 
2.5.3 The Chinese Dream and Expectations Towards the Youth 
The ‘Chinese dream’, the ’great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation’, has been a major 
political ideological slogan that has been used in Xi Jinping’s era (although it is rather 
vaguely defined). In his speeches, Xi has also emphasised the role of young people in 
realising the Chinese dream stating that ’a nation will be prosperous if its young generation is 
ambitious and reliable’. Additionally, the importance of ’integrating individual dreams into 
the national cause’ has been emphasised. (Xinhua 2022) From the official discourse alone, it 
is clear that expectations towards the Chinese youth are high. Chinese Dream and related 
initiatives in China are discussed more generally in the following chapter 2.5.4. 
Most of the research on the relation between youth and the Chinese dream has been conducted 
by Marxist scholars. For example, in his study, Yan (2021) notes that to realise the Chinese 
Dream, the youth should be passionate, hardworking, responsible, innovative, and creative 
among other attributes. They should take part in modernising the country and in promoting 
world peace and development. Above all, all of this should be done with the goal of 
rejuvenation of the Chinese nation in mind, with a firm belief on Marxism and the paradigm 
of Socialism with Chinese characteristics. While the methods of this and many other such 
studies are most often not clearly stated, they appear to be interpretations or reaffirmations of 
Xi Jinping’s speeches and the party-state’s white papers. Nevertheless, these studies inform 
about what is expected from the youth in public discourse in accordance with the ‘Chinese 
dream’ paradigm. The Chinese dream discourse, although rather vague, could well be one of 
the factors affecting the participants’ images of the future.  
While the expectations towards the youth are high, the Chinese youth’s own preferences are 
not in complete alignment with what is expected from them. In existing studies published in 
the early 2010s, researchers have presented findings supporting the claim that an 
intergenerational cultural value conflict exists in China, which has led to a gap between 
parental expectations and youth’s aspirations (Leung et al. 2010; Hou & Leung 2011). While 
the gap is not wide concerning career and education, the conflict is shown more clearly in 
topics such as premarital relationships, filial piety, and consumption (Leung et al. 2010). 
Although these conclusions were made based on data about the post-90s generation, it is 
likely that the intergenerational differences apply to the younger generation of post-00s as 
well.  
31 
 
Due to social media’s importance in youth’s lives, the youth’s attitudes and values can be 
found reflected also in different online trends and social movements. Although restricted 
through censorship, in the past ten years, several buzzwords concerning the rejection of social 
pressures have emerged in China. One of the trends in recent years that has already been 
studied is called “lying flat” (躺平; tangping). In her study, Su (2023) refers to the trend (and 
other similar buzzwords), as a youth subculture. She describes it as ’non-violent 
uncooperative rebellion’, ’spontaneous resistance to social inequality, and a collective and 
desperate yearning for social change’ (Su 2023, 127-128). While it is difficult to estimate how 
widely spread the rejection of social pressures is among the post-00s, these trends 
nevertheless show that there are some counter-narratives to the social expectations and norms 
in contemporary Chinese society.  
Concerning possible future developments, Li (2020, 9) has speculated that rapid changes 
including improvements in ’living standards, one-child policy, expansion of public education, 
the penetration of the Internet and the wave of migration’ will result in a drastic ’silent 
revolution’. Here, migration refers to rural-urban migration, whereas silent revolution is yet 
another concept developed by Ronald Inglehart, referring to the change in values when 
younger generations replace older generations with differing values. According to the 
researcher, this will lead to ’a more progressive, open, innovative, tolerant, and equalitarian 
society’ that is also ’increasingly […] free, with more respect for individuality’ (Li 2020, 9 & 
12). Like the findings, arguments, and hypothesis presented above, the results of my study 
were reflected against these speculations.  
 
2.5.4 Visions, Values, and Strategies for the Future in Today’s China 
Previous studies about images of the future of China were already briefly outlined in an 
earlier section. Here, I focus on notable initiatives, visions, and strategies promoted by the 
party-state in China, which are all present in all areas and levels of the society. As these are 
not only the party-state’s initiatives implemented by the state but also promoted through 
various visible campaigns to the general public and communities, it was likely that some of 
the discourse and ideas would show in my data as well.  
The most prevalent vision about China's future is deeply intertwined with the aforementioned 
ideological framework of the "Chinese Dream” – a concept promoted by President Xi Jinping. 
32 
 
Xi’s articulation of this dream integrates economic prosperity, cultural renewal, 
environmental sustainability, and military strength and pervades all levels and sectors of the 
society, stretching from the level of the individual to the global stage. The Chinese Dream 
emphasises national rejuvenation, reflecting an overarching ambition to restore China to a 
position of global prominence after the “century of humiliation”. Central to this vision are 
long-term strategies such as the 2049 goals16, marking the centenary of the founding of the 
People’s Republic of China, and emphasising a fully developed socialist nation with strong 
international influence. (e.g., Xinhua 2021a; MERICS 2019) 
As noted, China's governance mechanisms include medium- and long-term planning. The 
14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) the Vision 2035, and the aforementioned 2049 goals are 
examples of such strategic planning. These documents prioritise technological self-reliance, 
green development, and a shift from export-led to domestic consumption-driven growth. The 
current 14th Five-Year Plan reflects a shift towards innovation-driven growth, with major 
investments in artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and biotechnology. It also 
emphasises carbon neutrality, with a commitment to peak emissions by 2030 and achieve net-
zero emissions by 2060. (e.g., Xinhua 2021a) Overall, Xi Jinping has commonly talked about 
the importance of sustainability, viewing future as shared and maintaining harmony among 
people and between people and nature:  
“Man and nature form a community of life; we, as human beings, must respect 
nature, follow its ways, and protect it.” – Xi Jinping (as cited in Xinhua 2021b) 
Vision 2035, an ambitious medium-term goal, outlines China's aspirations to achieve high-
income nation status and become a global leader in innovation. (e.g., Xinhua 2021a) The 2049 
goals chart a longer horizon, aiming to position China as a fully modernized socialist country. 
This includes goals such as eradicating poverty, elevating global technological leadership, and 
establishing a more balanced urban-rural economy. Also, the Made in China 2025 outlines 
several goals to be achieved by the year 2049. These include becoming a leading global 
manufacturing, cyber, and science and technological superpower. (e.g., MERICS 2019.) 
The Chinese Dream and its supporting plans reflect not only domestic aspirations but also a 
reimagining of China’s role on the global level. Initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative 
(BRI) demonstrate China’s commitment to extending its influence through infrastructure 
                                                     
16 The goals set for 2049 and 2021 are together referred to as ”两个一百年” (liang ge yibai nian), ”two 
centenary goals”. 
33 
 
investment and trade connectivity. This strategic global engagement complements China’s 
internal modernisation efforts. Overall, China seeks to secure its place as a leading power in 
the evolving global order. While the first three years of the Covid-19 pandemic and related 
lockdown policies affected such initiatives, the China’s global ambitions have been gaining 
new momentum since the end of zero-covid policies in December 2022. (Gunter et al., 2023.) 
Besides the many discourses, aims, and initiatives, it is also important to consider values that 
are actively promoted by the party-state. The 12 Core Socialist Values17 (see Table 2) form a 
foundational framework for contemporary Chinese society, promoted by the Chinese 
Communist Party (CCP) as a guiding set of principles for personal behaviour, governance, 
and cultural identity. Introduced under the leadership of Xi Jinping, these values aim to 
reinforce ideological unity and provide a moral compass for individuals and institutions alike. 
They are organised into three categories: national values, societal values, and individual 
values, representing a holistic approach to fostering a harmonious and prosperous society. I 
saw it likely that these values would appear in my data as well.  
 
Table 2. The 12 Core Socialist Values of Chinese Communist Party 
The national values  "prosperity" (富强), "democracy" (民主), "civility" (文明) and "harmony" 
(和谐) 
The social values "freedom" (自由), "equality" (平等), "justice" (公正) and the "rule of law" 
(法治) 
The individual values "patriotism" (爱国), "dedication" (敬业), "integrity" (诚信) and 
"friendliness" (友善) 
 
                                                     
17 These are commonly known and can be read more about, for example, here: 
https://www.strategictranslation.org/glossary/core-socialist-values  
34 
 
3 Methodology 
In this section, I explain my choices concerning research methodology and the process of data 
collection and analysis. I start by outlining the data collection methods and fieldwork process, 
including characteristics of the sample, as well as choices concerning research and survey 
design. I then move onto describing the data analysis process and the methods used. The 
results of the study are discussed in the following chapter (Chapter 4). 
 
3.1 Data Collection and Fieldwork Process 
Concerning the data collection for my thesis, I chose to collect information from Chinese 
university students in China about their relationship with the future and their images of the 
future as well as information about what shapes these images. These aims were the major 
factors which were the basis of my decisions concerning the sample and survey design. 
Secondly, the sample and data collection were also largely determined by convenience due to 
limited resources and time constraints. I was not able to travel to China to collect data myself 
and lacked financial resources for the study. This was behind some decisions in my study, for 
example, concerning the survey administration method: an online questionnaire.  
Thirdly, the safety of the participants was a major concern. This meant designing an 
anonymous survey and avoiding inclusion of questions that could be interpreted as politically 
sensitive. To protect all who were involved in the data collection process, their names nor the 
name and the location of the university were disclosed. However, I would like to extend my 
warmest thanks to everyone who participated in the survey, and to the many colleagues and 
professors who helped me throughout the research process, from comments on the survey 
questions and design, to feedback about my translations, and for using their valuable time for 
helping me to apply for research permits and aiding in the distribution of the survey.  
 
 
 
 
35 
 
3.1.1 Sample: Size and Characteristics 
“The world belongs to you. China’s future belongs to you.” – Mao Zedong in a 
speech to Chinese students in Moscow in 1957. 
I first narrowed down the scope of the study to Chinese youth. While those currently in power 
have the means to influence the here and now, studying the youth is valuable due to them 
being the potential future leaders and changemakers of the society. The youth are also quick 
to create, shape and adapt new ideas and views, which can reflect ongoing and incoming 
socio-cultural changes effectively. In previous research about future orientation, researchers 
have identified differences between age groups, genders, and between rural and urban 
residents. Therefore, I further narrowed down the scope to the post-00s generation and to 
university students. These choices were also based on convenience and existing contacts.  
I planned to target the research further to those who were from and currently lived in a first-
tier city in China, but in the end, the sample included students from diverse city-tiers, but who 
all studied in a second-tier city at the time of the study. I made no restrictions concerning 
gender, as this could not only allow comparisons between genders but also speed up the data 
collection process (in contrast to using gender quotas or choosing participants only from a 
specific gender). Finally, due to not being able to personally travel to China to collect data, 
the sample was shaped by convenience – based on existing contacts and possible new 
connections residing in China that could be able to reach the target group (i.e., professors at 
universities). Therefore, the results may be affected by selection bias through participants not 
being randomly selected but rather based on access to them. The contacts were also mainly 
foreign professors working in China in universities that have some international staff. These 
universities are generally more internationally oriented and may be more prestigious18.  
After narrowing down the sample and clarifying my research topic, aims, and research 
questions I started drafting the survey in June 2023. I then began to advance the fieldwork 
process in August 2023 by emailing two universities I had existing contacts at, inquiring the 
universities about the possibility and process of conducting an online survey involving their 
students. From these universities, one replied and was therefore chosen based on availability. 
The process of obtaining required permissions for conducting research continued until 
November 2023, and I eventually obtained a research permit that was to expire in March 
                                                     
18 However, there are also many other factors that affect how prestigious a university is. 
36 
 
2024. The process included sending information about my study and the survey design in 
English and Chinese for application of research approval and ethical approval. After attaining 
the required approvals, I started contacting university staff, inquiring about the possibility of 
them distributing the survey. I then had to go through another application stage at the 
department level. In the end, I only managed to get one response.  
As the reasons for the failure of the first data collection attempt were unclear, I modified the 
survey, making questions clearer and the survey format more concise. I first reached out to 
several universities in China but received no response. I then contacted existing contacts in 
another city to enquire about the possibility of survey distribution. Soon it became clear that I 
would not be able to reach enough participants from my target group (Chinese university 
students) through these contacts.  
Finally, in the end of March 2024, I decided to try to contact a professor working at a 
university in China. After an approval process, this attempt eventually led to a successful data 
collection. I received 38 responses which were collected on May 23rd and May 24th, 2024. The 
survey was advertised to a total of four professors working at the same university. The 
questionnaire link was distributed to students through email and through a social media group 
chat which only had students that a professor had taught at the university.  
 
3.1.2 Research and Survey Design 
Firstly, concerning the timescale of the future images: in some studies, the future is not 
specified to a certain year. This choice would have also supported by Park’s (2013) findings 
presented in his paper. However, using a specific year allows for better comparison of the 
results, which is why I chose to do so. In studies by Hoffman (2019) as well as by Black and 
Walsh (2019) the year 2060 was chosen. However, as the participants would likely to be close 
to retirement at that point, I chose the year 2050 instead. In 2050, the post-00s will be 40-50 
years old. This is an age at which major life choices have been already made (e.g., concerning 
career and family) but one is likely to still lead a “normal” adult life in comparison to having 
retired. While not too far into the future in this regard, 2050 is far enough into the future that 
it opens the possibility of some major changes having already occurred in the world. The year 
is also situated right after China’s outlined objectives that are to be reached by 2049. 
37 
 
Concerning data collection methods, the responses collected through an online administered 
survey. I chose to use Webropol to create and distribute the survey due to it being available 
through my university and due to it providing better security and privacy than many other 
available platforms. The first page of the survey (Q1) consisted of the contents of the 
participant information sheet, and it was required for the participant to indicate that their 
participation was informed and voluntary before moving on with the survey. The second page 
concerned background information about the participants. In compliance with China’s new 
data transfer law from 2023, and to protect the participants, I designed the survey to be 
anonymous and no personal information was collected.  
Concerning the participants’ background (Q2), I collected the following information: age, 
gender, year of study, and university major. Then, the participants were asked to indicate the 
category of hometown tier (Q3). The participants had the option to opt out of this question. 
The survey then continued with questions about the participants’ relationship with the future – 
their future orientation (Q4-12), after which the participants were asked to describe what they 
think the year 2050 will be like (probable future: Q13-17) and secondly, their ideal scenario 
for 2050 (preferred future: Q18-22). Lastly, the participants were given the opportunity to 
give feedback about the survey (Q23). The full survey is available in Chinese (as presented to 
respondents’) in Appendix 1 and outlined in more detail in English in Appendix 2. The survey 
questions were drafted after a review of previous studies with similar topics, as well as 
previous research, suggestions, theories, and analysis on images of the future which I outlined 
in the background chapter (Chapter 2).  
Because of RQ1 (what the participants’ images of the future are like), I wanted to assess 
which themes are important to the participants. This is why in designing the survey, I wanted 
to word the questions as open as possible. I aimed to design them in a way that would leave 
space for the respondents’ ideas in order to not impose my own. While I did specify the year 
to be imagined as 2050, I chose to avoid asking about any specific themes, as this would 
allow me to map out topics that were important to the participants. However, based on 
feedback from the colleagues who reviewed the survey, concerning future of the world and 
top three changes in the world, the following aspects were mentioned as examples of aspects 
that could be considered: “environment, society, technology, infrastructure, culture etc.”. 
Concerning top three values that guide the society, one example was given in the question: 
“care” (关怀, guanhuai). This specification too was made to the question based on feedback 
to ensure clarity of the survey design. It is possible that giving these examples may have 
38 
 
influenced the results, through increasing the likelihood of participants mentioning these 
particular examples rather than what spontaneously comes to their mind. Ideally, a pilot study 
with and without the examples would have been conducted to assess the impact of the given 
examples on participants’ responses. 
 
3.2 Data Analysis 
After data collection, I began to prepare for data analysis. At this stage, four (4) of the 
participants were disqualified from the study, because it was clear that the participant’s 
answers were unusable either concerning the probable, preferred or both visions of 2050. For 
example, to describe a vision of 2050 using three adjectives or descriptive phrases, the 
following answer was given: “good; bad; mediocre”. Because it was difficult to estimate if the 
participant had completed the prior and following sections of the survey seriously, all of the 
answers of those four participants were omitted from the study. In the end, the analysis 
proceeded with 34 participants. I then performed quantitative analysis on questions Q2-12, 
producing descriptive statistics to form a general picture of the sample concerning their 
demographic information and relationship to the future.  
In previous research on images of the future, some researchers have used qualitative content 
analysis (e.g., Kaboli & Tapio 2018), some have used thematic analysis (e.g., Rasa & Laherto 
2022), while some mention no other methodologies than Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) 
(e.g., Hoffman 2019). For this thesis, I chose to conduct a thematic analysis as it was one of 
the methods used in previous studies and as I was most familiar with the method. 
CLA was used as part of the thematic analysis. CLA has been recommended by Inayatullah 
himself for use as a research method in master’s thesis (Inayatullar 2004, 19). However, as 
noted, research in a group of individuals’ images of the future using the CLA is still scarce, 
although the few existing studies promote its use for such research. As an example, in their 
study, Kaboli and Tapio conclude that Causal Layered Analysis produces ’a fruitful, rich, in-
depth understanding of the images of the future’ (Kaboli & Tapio 2018, 42). While their study 
used interviews, CLA has been proven to be effective for analysis of survey data about 
images of the future as well (Hoffman 2019).  
 
39 
 
3.2.1 The Data Analysis Process: Thematic Analysis, Descriptive Statistics, and 
Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) 
I first combined all of an individual participant’s responses about the probable 2050 scenario 
to form a comprehensive description of the individual’s image of the probable future. I then 
did the same concerning questions about the ideal 2050 scenario. Therefore, concerning the 
probable images of the year 2050 and the preferred images, there were 34 images for each and 
a total of 68 images. I analysed the data through thematic analysis, aiming to find distinct 
images of the future from the participants descriptions of a probable 2050 and a preferred 
2050. I followed the six stages of thematic analysis as outlined in a paper by Naeem et al. 
(2023) based on previous publications and descriptions of the method. The process is 
presented below based on their paper.  
Step 1 involves ‘transcription, familiarization with the data, and selection of quotations’ 
(Naeem et al. 2023, 2). At this stage, I first translated the answers to questions 13-22 from 
Chinese to English. The decision of analysing the data primarily after translating it to English 
was made mostly due to the versions of programs I had and used in analysis (NVivo, Excel, 
and SPSS) being better able to comprehend data in English compared to Chinese. However, I 
referred to the original answers periodically throughout the analysis process. Here, I also 
familiarised myself with the data, reading over it multiple times and noting initial themes. I 
also selected quotations that could be used later to ‘bring the data to life and aptly represent 
diverse viewpoints and patterns pertinent to the research objectives’ as advised by the writers 
(ibid., 4). However, some of the quotations presented in this thesis were added later on as a 
last step of the analysis process. 
Step 2 consists of selecting keywords. This meant identifying and noting down recurring 
patterns and terms that ‘are directly derived from the data’ (Naeem et al. 2023, 4). For my 
study, these included, for example, ‘deteriorated environment’, ‘conflicts’, and ‘world peace’.  
I then continued to step 3, which is coding and involved using short phrases or words to 
capture the essence of a segment of data concerning its message or theme (Naeem et al. 2023, 
4). Here, for example, different descriptions of technological advancements such as ‘flying 
cars’ and ‘artificial intelligence’ were coded as ‘high-tech’.  
Step 4 focuses on development of themes. Here, codes are organised to groups through more 
abstract interpretation ‘to identify patterns and relationships, thereby offering insights into the 
40 
 
research question’ (Naeem et al. 2023, 4). In my study, the themes were essentially images of 
the future, and codes different aspects and details of the images. In previous research, it has 
been common to form between two to four groups of images (e.g., Kaboli & Tapio 2018). I 
used this as a guideline in how many final groups of images (i.e., themes) should be 
developed. 
Firstly, one major theme that emerged was an emphasis on progress and development 
accompanied with a sense of optimism (conveyed through e.g., description of changes as 
“better”). Through a closer look, a common denominator between these images was also a 
focus on technology and mentions of various high-tech products. These came to form the 
image labelled as high-tech society. At first, however, the images were divided into more 
specific themes with different emphasis: development, prosperity, patriotism, and high-tech. 
Due to their similarities overall in codes and keywords, these images were combined to form 
image A. 
I also identified relationships between codes of individual images that concerned another 
focus: sustainability, and harmony (often as peaceful relations with others and nature). 
Looking at the individual images that contained these codes, I noted that also codes such as 
“meaningful life” and “happiness” were common. These individual images came to form the 
second image of harmonious world. A similar process as with image A was undertaken 
concerning image B, where different emphases were identified concerning harmoniousness: 
environmental focus, world peace focus, and a more abstract description. These were 
combined to form a singular image, again, due to significant overlaps in codes and keywords. 
Thirdly, I had noted that there was a minority of images that stood out by containing codes 
such as “instability”, “conflicts”, and “negative changes”. These were grouped to form the 
third image of times of change. At first, I tried to group the images under image C in images 
A and B as many of them contained some elements that would have fit the images, for 
instance “convenience”, which was emphasized especially in image A. In the end, I decided to 
leave the images to their own category, as they stood out from the other individuals’ images 
in A and B groups.  
I first considered six images: three for probable 2050 and three for ideal 2050, with similar 
titles. However, the three categories of each probable and preferred images were very similar, 
which is why I chose to combine them and only use only three categories. This, again, also 
aligned with the number of images usually formed in previous studies. The similarity in 
41 
 
participants’ images concerning the probable 2050 and preferred 2050 suggests that the 
participant’s dreams about the future tend to be similar to what they imagine the future to 
likely be like.  
Therefore, the analysis process did involve some hesitation. However, although I tried to 
develop the themes in differing ways, in the end, the three images repeatedly appeared as the 
best fit to the data. Beyond just images grouped under times of change, it was common that 
individual images contained elements that would have fit under multiple types of images of 
the future (Images A-C). They were categorised based on which they fit the best. There were 
also contradictions in the images, as expected based on previous research. As an example, 
concerning changes in the environment, some participants listed both positive and negative 
descriptions. It was also clear that some tensions were present in the images, as for instance, 
the participants reported both materialist and post-materialist values19. These will be 
discussed in more detail in the upcoming sections.  
Although in previous research it has been common to place the images on a continuum from 
positive to negative as was suggested by pioneers in the field such as Fred Polak, it was 
difficult to do some concerning these images. Judging images as positive or negative must be 
done against a norm of a desired outcome. Great technological progress is as ideal to one as 
social change and instability is to another. Even if assessed against normative developmental 
images, images A (high-tech society) and B (harmonious world) were both quite positive to a 
similar extent, while especially image A could have well been an undesirable dystopia instead 
of a utopia to some participants whose images fell under category C (times of change). In 
image A, the word utopia was first included in the name (high-tech utopia) to communicate 
an overwhelming optimism that was present in the images. However, there were some (n: 5) 
participants that appeared to not prefer this future, only seeing it as the likely scenario, (see 
Figure 9). Due to this, and to avoid making normative judgements, I later changed the title to 
high-tech society. 
Between stages 4 and 5 I also produced descriptive statistics concerning the other information 
collected in the survey: demographic data, attitudes, agency, sources of information 
concerning the future, and so on. I used the descriptive statistics to add to my 
                                                     
19 While Inglehart’s study is rather dated, the terminology is used here due to it having been used in recent 
studies on the post-00s values, attitudes, and expectations towards them. This makes comparisons of the results 
easier. 
42 
 
conceptualisation of the images. At this stage, I also started to look at the values which 
participants had reported about the future scenarios. I investigated the frequency of different 
values concerning each category of images.  
Step 5 is ‘conceptualisation through interpretation of keywords, codes, and themes’ (Naeem et 
al. 2023, 4). This involved understanding and defining the images of the future, making 
connections between the different concepts within them. Here, I also conducted CLA to help 
me understand and conceptualise the images. As recommended by Inayatullah and other 
researchers in previous studies and guidebooks, I moved up and down the levels of CLA 
(Figure 1) in conducting the analysis, categorising codes and keywords within each theme 
(i.e., group of images of the future) on the levels of CLA. These mostly fell under litany, 
systemic causes and worldview levels, while less metaphors were mentioned. CLA also 
involved interpreting the data based on my prior knowledge and the research review I 
completed for Chapter 2.  
As the final step, step 6 consisted of developing a conceptual model – ‘a unique 
representation of the data’, ‘to answer the research questions and underscore the study’s 
contribution to knowledge’ (Naeem et al. 2023, 5). At this stage, descriptions of the images 
were finalised, and tables and diagrams were produced to illustrate the different images and 
their prevalence within the sample, as well as the results of CLA. I chose to illustrate the 
number of images and their overlaps between probable and preferred images using an alluvial 
diagram (Figure 9), as it allowed me to present many-to-many connections between the 
images. The diagram was created using Flourish Studio’s online tool.  
Lastly, I would like to note that while the analysis was inductive (besides interpretations 
noted during CLA). I did compare the results from all stages of analysis with previous 
research and existing theories, and considered possible implications of the results, based on 
the data, previous research, and my knowledge of the context in China and beyond. It is 
possible (or perhaps likely) that the research review (i.e., reading previous studies and 
theories) I completed before the analysis, as well as my other prior knowledge, worldview, 
and assumptions may have influenced my judgement during the analysis. 
 
43 
 
4 Results & Analysis 
In this section, I discuss the results of my study. I start by describing the sample – focusing 
first on the demographics. After that, I move onto discussing the participants future 
orientation. I then describe and discuss the participants’ images of the future. Finally, I reflect 
on the implications of the results, limitations, and significance of the results and the study. 
  
4.1 Sample Demographics 
Out of the participants, 11 (32%) were women and 23 (68%) were men, and their ages varied 
from 18 to 22 years old. The age and gender distribution of the participants can be seen in the 
figure below (Figure 2). The mean age was 20,15 and the median age 20.  
 
Figure 3. Participants’ Gender and Age Distribution 
 
Concerning their home city’s tier, the participants were given the choice to opt-out by 
choosing the option: “unsure/unwilling to answer”. Four participants (n:4; 12%) opted out. 
Most of the participants indicated that they were from a city, and almost half of them (n: 15; 
44%) were from a first-tier or new first-tier city. As noted previously, all the participants were 
studying at the same university in a second-tier city at the time of this study. The portion of 
all city tiers out of the participants’ answers about their hometown can be seen in Figure 3. 
 
4 4
2 12
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44 
 
Figure 4. Participants’ Hometown City Tiers 
 
All participants indicated that they were studying at the university where the data collection 
was intended to be administered. All participants also indicated that they were undergraduate 
students. The participants’ university majors can be seen in Figure 4. Majority of the 
participants studied computer science (n: 22; 64%), while the rest studied international 
business, economics, accounting, and finance. The participants were also asked if they had 
previous study experience with futures studies. A majority of the participants (n: 25; 74%) 
indicated that they had no prior futures studies study experience 
 
Figure 5. Participants’ Majors at University 
 
 
 
 
 
15; 44 %
4; 12 %
5; 14 %
3; 9 %
1; 3 %
2; 6 %
4; 12 %
1st Tier City / New 1st Tier
City
2nd Tier City
3rd Tier City
4th Tier City
5th Tier City
Other
Computer 
Science; 22; 
64 %
Finance; 5; 15 
%
Accounting; 4; 
12 %
International 
Business; 2; 6 %
Economics; 1; 3 %
45 
 
The participants’ age distribution was as desired and corresponded to the research aims and 
research questions. Concerning gender, it would have been more ideal to have a better-
balanced sample through a more equal amount of male and female participants. Moving onto 
the participants university majors and hometown city tiers, it would have been better to obtain 
a sample in which the students would have been studying the same major and be from similar 
hometowns (i.e., same city tier). This would have reduced variability within the sample, 
allowed some control over socioeconomic background and therefore also improved 
comparability of the results if similar studies are conducted in the future. However, this 
sample still provides meaningful results concerning the appropriateness of the research design 
in China and the results could still be used as a basis of drafting research designs in future 
studies. 
 
4.2 Participants’ Future Orientation 
In this chapter, I provide a general overview of the participants future orientation, describing 
their frequency of thinking about different scales of the future (from one’s own future to 
global future), the time periods the participants tended to focus on when thinking about 
different scales of future, the participants’ external sources of information and views 
concerning the future, as well as their agency, feelings about the future (on a continuum from 
optimism to pessimism), and their felt certainty about the future (on a continuum from 
certainty to uncertainty).  
 
Scales of the Future: From the Individual to the Global Scale 
In the survey, question four (Q4) assessed how often the participants think about a) their own 
future b) the future of the people they know (family, friends, etc.), c) the future of their city, 
d) the future of their country and e) the global future. When asked about the frequency of 
thinking about their own future, 61 % (n: 21) of the participants reported thinking about their 
future at least once a week. The same figure was 47 % for thinking about the future of the 
people they knew (e.g., family and friends). Out of the five items, the future of one’s city and 
the global future appeared to be the least on the participants’ minds. When asked about the 
frequency of thinking about their city’s future or the global future, only 21 % reported 
thinking about their own city’s future or the global future at least once a week. In comparison, 
46 
 
the same figure was 34 % concerning the future of China. Interestingly, when asked about the 
global future, 32 % of participants reported that they thought about it less than once every 
year. The participants reported encountering information and ideas about the future the least 
in documentaries, movies, series and books out of the items measured. However, these 
sources can have a lasting impact as they are often longer in duration and more immersive, 
deeper experiences than watching the news or having a conversation with a friend.  
 
Figure 6. Participants’ Frequencies of Thinking about Different Future Scales 
 
These results indicated that for the participants, the frequency of thinking about a certain 
future scale did not increase linearly from smallest to largest scale, i.e. from own future to the 
global future. This could be due to asking the participants about the future of the city they live 
in currently, which many of the participants may have moved to only when entering 
university. It should also be acknowledged that these categories are not exclusive, as many 
elements from larger scales may influence smaller scales. For instance, the future of one’s city 
affects one’s daily life from transportation to employment opportunities. Similarly, the global 
future sets the context for one’s life, for example, through affecting climate change affecting 
local weather and climate conditions. 
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My own future The future of the
people I know (faimly,
friends etc.)
The future of my city The future of the
country or society
The global future
47 
 
Figure 7. Participants Frequency of Thinking about Different Future Scales: From the Most 
Often Though About Scale (Left) to the Least Often Thought About Scale (Right) 
 
As introduced in the background section, in previous studies, researchers have found that 
most Chinese adolescents’ hopes and fears related to the general or collective future, and that 
hopes and fears concerning the self were far fewer than those related to education, career and 
family (Zhang et al., 2015, pp. 625-626; Zhao et al., 2018, p. 67). In addition, in another study 
from Taiwan it was found that half of the participants decided to discuss the global future 
when given the choice to discuss anything about the future (Ono, 2003, pp. 754-757).  
 
Proximity of the Future in Years 
The survey also included a question about what point in time they most often consider when 
thinking about the future. Concerning their own future as well as the future of the world, 
participants’ answers ranged from less than one year to 90 years, with an average of six (6) 
years for both. The similarity in proximity of thinking of the future concerning own and the 
global future contrasts with previous studies. 
 
Information and Ideas about the Future  
The participants were also asked about where and how often they encounter information and 
views about the future. The frequency of encountering information and views about the future 
varied across the different sources. 65% (n: 22) of the participants reported that they 
encountered information and ideas about the future in social media every week or more often. 
Compared to other given sources of information, social media was in fact the source where 
they encountered information and ideas about the future most often. However, this was 
followed closely by the news and conversations with family and friends as both had 59% (n: 
20) participants encounter views and information about the future every week or more often. 
This number decreased concerning other sources. 14 (41%) of the participants reported 
encountering information and views about the future at least weekly in education, while 12 
(35%) indicated so concerning documentaries, tv-series or books.  
Own future
Future of 
friends and 
family
China's 
future
Global 
future
City's future
48 
 
Figure 8. The Frequency of Encountering Information or Views about the Future from Different 
sources 
 
 
Agency 
To study the participants felt agency, they were asked to choose the sentence that describes 
them the best out of the following options: 
a. There are many possibilities for my future. The future is something I can 
proactively plan and formulate. 
b. The future is unknowable. I cannot change the future – I can only adapt to 
what will happen. 
c. The future is somewhat predictable, but it is largely determined by economic, 
social, and political factors beyond my control. 
These options were formulated based on multiple previous studies and theories (presented in 
Chapter 2, e.g., Polak 1973) to assess participants’ agency through collecting data about the 
extent to which they 1) feel like the future is pre-determined, and 2) feel like they can shape 
0
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The News Social Media In conversations with
family and friends
In education / at the
university
In documentaries,
movies, tv-series or
books
49 
 
the future20. Roughly 35% (n: 12) of the participants chose statement A, which indicated a 
sense of confidence concerning shaping the future and the opportunities it holds. Statement B 
indicated the strongest sense of uncertainty and helplessness about the future. Around 15% (n: 
5) chose this statement. Finally, half of the participants (n:17; 50%) chose statement C. This 
option presented a balance between options A and B, indicating that while there is some 
predictability, the future is largely beyond their control, therefore representing a rather weak 
sense of agency. 
 
Nature of the Future: Positive or Negative 
To study the extent to which the participants felt optimistic or pessimistic about the future, I 
collected data about how the participant felt about their own future and the general future on a 
5-point scale from very pessimistic (1) to very optimistic (5). For feelings about both own 
future and the future of the world, respondents’ answers ranged between 1-5. For own future, 
the mean was 3.71 and the median 4, whereas for the future of the world, the mean was 3.44 
and the median 3. Therefore, the respondents were slightly more optimistic about their own 
future than the future of the world.  
 
Figure 9. Results Concerning Optimism and Pessimism about the Future among the 
Participants 
 
                                                     
20 For instance, a set of sentences mapping these were used in Polak game: a) ‘The future is bright, and I have 
the ability to change the world; b) the future is bright, but there is little I can personally do; c) the future is bleak, 
and I have little influence; d) the future is bleak, and I can change it’ (Polak 1973 as cited by Inayatullah 2019, p. 
12). 
4
5
8
14
16
10
6
5
Own Future
General Future
1 Very Pessimistic 2 3 4 5 Very Optimistic
50 
 
Uncertainty and Certainty 
Felt uncertainty about the future was also measured with a 5-point scale from very uncertain 
(1) to very predictable (5). For uncertainty about their own future, respondents’ answers 
ranged between 2 and 4 while for the future of the world, they ranged from 1 and 5. The 
median was 3 for both one’s own future and the future of the world. There was a slight 
difference in the means: for own future, the mean of felt uncertainty was 2.94, while for the 
future of the world, the mean was 2.80. Therefore, the general future was perceived a little 
more uncertain (on average) than one’s own future.  
 
Figure 10. Results Concerning Perceived Certainty and Uncertainty of the Future among the 
Participants 
 
 
 
 
4.3 Participants’ Images of the Future 
After analysing the data about participants’ future orientation, I moved onto their images of 
the future. In this chapter, I first present an overview of the different images found in the data, 
and their prevalence under probable and preferred futures. I then compare participants 
probable and preferred images and end the chapter by presenting descriptive statistics about 
the three images.  
 
2
8
11
20
14
6
6 1
Own Future
General Future
1 Very uncertain 2 3 4 5 Very certain
51 
 
4.3.1 Participants’ Probable and Preferred Images of the Future 
The main results of the study concern what the participants’ images of the future are like 
(RQ1). As described in the section about process of the analysis under methodology chapter, I 
found three distinct images in the data. These were namely high-tech society, harmonious 
world, and times of change. A summary of the images can be seen in the table below (Table 
3). Full analysis and description of the three images can be found in the next chapter (4.4).  
 
Table 3. Summary of Participants’ Images of 2050 
 Summary of Participants’ Images of 2050 
A. High-tech society Progress and development have occurred in most areas of life and the 
society, where life is proliferated with advanced technology. 
B. Harmonious world A sustainable and peaceful globalised world where people lead 
meaningful lives. 
C. Times of Change There are some societal issues, unrest, disconnection, and chaos, but 
also cultural diversity, some technological development, and convenience 
of daily life.  
 
Concerning the prevalence of the three different images under probable and preferred futures, 
as can be seen from the diagram (Figure 11), 12 of the participants whose images fell under 
category high-tech society (A) also fit the best under the same category concerning preferred 
images, while 5 of the participants’ images were categorised under image harmonious world 
(B) concerning preferred 2050. A majority (n: 6) of the participants whose image was 
categorised under harmonious world (B) also fit the best under the same category concerning 
preferred images, while the images of the rest of them (n: 3) resembled more closely category 
A. Finally, from probable 2050 category of times of change (C), three participants’ images 
were categorised under high-tech society (A) in preferred 2050, two of them under 
harmonious world (B), and 3 under the same category as for probable image: times of change 
(C).  
 
 
 
 
52 
 
Figure 11. Participants’ Probable and Preferred Images of 2050* 
 
 
   
 
*This alluvial diagram was created using Flourish Studio:     
https://flourish.studio/visualisations/sankey-charts/. 
 
My main secondary aim in this research was to consider aspects including systemic causes, 
values, and worldviews that underlie the images and may influence their formation (RQ2). 
Especially related to RQ1, it was important to investigate what themes are important to the 
participants when thinking about the future. In the tables below are listed the most common 
keywords found in the realistic and ideal images of the future. The frequencies were counted 
using NVivo. Some terms with topics that were highly alike such as “high-tech” and 
“technology”, “development” and “progress” were grouped together to form the keywords.  
While technology was important in both probable and preferred images, it does have a much 
stronger role in the probable vision, with over twice as many mentions (n: 58) than in the 
preferred vision (n: 27). This suggests that in the probable images, participants more 
commonly thought about technology as a factor shaping the future, while it held lesser 
priority on the participants’ minds when imagining preferred futures. 
53 
 
Table 4. Top 10 Keywords Concerning Descriptions, Values, and Changes Described when 
Asked About Probable and Preferred 2050 
Probable 2050  Preferred 2050 
Keyword Frequency (n)  Keyword Frequency (n) 
Technology 58  Technology 27 
Culture 18  Environment 18 
Development and progress 17  Life 15 
Environment 14  Society 11 
Convenience 13  Science 11 
Science 10  Equality 9 
Friendliness / friendship 10  Money 8 
Society 9  Enjoyment 8 
Equality 8  Peace 7 
Infrastructure 7  Home 7 
 
As can be seen from Table 4, environmental concerns appear in both visions, indicating that 
besides technology, the environment was a central theme in the participants imaginings of the 
future, more so in preferred images (n: 18) than in probable (n: 14). However, it should be 
noted that the participants did not refer to specific phenomena such as climate change/global 
warming in their responses, although this has been a common theme in previous studies21. 
Finally, science is also present in both visions, which shows that scientific advancements have 
importance in the future in addition to technological development (probable n: 10, preferred 
n: 11). However, technology, science, and the environment are not the only themes apparent 
from the frequencies. In both sets of images, “society” was mentioned multiple times. Based 
on these frequencies of keywords, equality is something that often shapes the future society in 
participants’ minds (probable n: 8, preferred n: 9). Finally, culture was often mentioned by 
participants especially concerning the probable images (n: 18).  
In the probable image, many participants noted development and progress (n: 17). In the 
probable image, also “convenience” (n: 13) and “infrastructure” (n: 7) were common, 
suggesting a future shaped by efficiency and a society where advanced systems support daily 
life. In the preferred image, these aspects were less prominent, perhaps reflecting a preference 
for more wellbeing and human-centred, peaceful futures. In fact, in the ideal image, “peace” 
                                                     
21 Climate change was also chosen as a focus in some studies, for example, by Hoffman (2019). 
54 
 
is mentioned (n: 7). This reflects a desire for a harmonious future. Some other keywords were 
also only mentioned in preferred images that related to personal life, such as “money” (n: 8), 
“enjoyment” (n: 8), and “home” (n: 7). Overall, these findings suggest that in participants' 
preferred futures, there is more importance on personal life, well-being, enjoyment, and 
tranquillity than on development and advancements.  
Overall, concerning the preferred images, responses were generally briefer as well as more 
abstract and general than those in the part about the probable vision of 2050. Another 
observation I made while going through the responses was that the responses for preferred 
2050 tended to centre more around one’s own life, in comparison to the probable 2050 
images, which were more focused on national and international level, society, culture and 
technology – besides when asked specifically about the participant’s daily life. Additionally, 
three participants focused only on their personal life when asked to describe the preferred 
future, while none of the participants did so concerning the probable images.  
Preferred images are something that one has to make up oneself – to imagine. They are more 
loosely tied to the current circumstances and trajectories than realistic images. Under life’s 
pressures, one may naturally tend to put more thought into what is likely to occur in the future 
and how to adjust to it rather than dreaming of an ideal future and putting effort to make one’s 
visions the reality. It is easier to adapt to the surroundings than to adapt one’s surroundings to 
one’s wishes and values. This highlights the importance of encouraging the youth to imagine 
preferable futures. 
To summarise, the keyword frequencies suggest that a more harmonious, people-centred 
future where life enjoyment and societal peace are prioritised alongside technological 
advances. In essence, the probable vision is more about systemic and technological growth, 
while the preferred vision leans towards personal and inter-personal satisfaction. The 
expected trajectory is a continuation of focus on technological and scientific advancements, 
development and progress. This is no surprise looking at China’s aims for 2049 (as noted in 
previous chapter) and knowing the major of over half the participants to be computer science. 
Additionally, development and rapid growth have been part of the post-00s early growing-up 
experience, although China’s growth has been slower since. 
 
55 
 
4.3.2 Descriptive Statistics about the Three Images 
In this section I introduce some descriptive statistics concerning each of the three images, 
before moving onto presenting the detailed descriptions and CLA of each of the three images 
in the next section (4.4). For descriptive statistics, the data for probable and preferred images 
were combined (images n: 68; participants n: 34) to provide a general summary of the three 
images22. It was therefore enough to categorise the participant under a certain image if either 
their probable or preferred image was categorised under the given group of images. 
As can be seen from figure 11, 59% of Computer Science students’ images aligned best with 
high-tech society. This was more compared to all other majors besides students studying 
International Business. 23 % of the Computer Science students’ images were grouped under 
harmonious world, and 18% of their images were grouped under Times of Change. This 
implies potential awareness of both the rapid advancements in technology and the 
uncertainties such changes might bring, but also some yearning for a world with a different 
more emphasis on sustainability and peace.  
 
Figure 12. Participants University Majors and their Images of the Future (n: 34) 
 
*The number refers to number of participants, whom each contributed two images. 
 
                                                     
22 This choice was made due to constraints concerning length of the thesis and available time.  
38%
59%
20%
100%
63%
23%
50%
60%
18%
50%
20%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Accounting (n: 4)*
Computer Science (n:
22)*
Economics (n: 1)*
Finance (n: 5)*
International Business
(n: 2)*
Image A: high-tech society Image B: Harmonious world Image C: times of change
56 
 
Because the number of participants studying other majors than computer science is very small 
(n: 1-5), the results cannot be used to draw any conclusions. These were still included in the 
figure above (Figure 11) and the results could be compared to data from larger samples. 
Future research could focus on specific majors to analyse the differences in visions of the 
future in more depth. 
Between the three images, one notable difference concerned how far into future the 
participant usually thought when thinking about their own future or the future of the world as 
can be seen from Table 5. The biggest contrast was between respondents grouped under 
image B (harmonious world) and C (times of change). Whereas under image B, the averages 
were 9.81 and 9.00 for own future and general future, under image C, the same numbers were 
2.62 and 2.88. Notably, also the standard deviations were quite low, especially compared to 
the two images A and B. Additionally, under image B, participants were more certain and 
optimistic about the future compared to the other two images, followed by participants under 
image A and lastly C. These results would suggest that sense of uncertainty, pessimism, and 
tendency to think in short time scales when thinking about the future could be linked to 
viewing the future as gloomier and more turbulent, and the other way around. However, 
studies with larger samples should be done to investigate this before any conclusions can be 
drawn.  
 
Table 5. Means and Standard Deviations Concerning Data about Aspects of Participants’ 
Future Orientation under the Three Images (n = 34) 
 Image A: high-tech 
utopia 
Image B: harmonious 
world 
Image C: times of 
change 
Thinking about own 
future (years from 
now) 
7.86 (sd: 18.55) 
  
9.81 (sd: 21.99) 
 
2.62 (sd: 3.11) 
 
Thinking about future 
of the world (years 
from now) 
7.35 (sd: 18.33) 
 
9.00 (sd: 21.88) 
 
2.88 (sd: 3.27) 
 
Optimism about own 
future (1-5)* 
3.65 (sd: 0.98) 
 
4.06 (sd: 0.44) 
 
3.38 (sd: 0.92) 
Optimism about 
future of the world (1-
5)* 
3.35 (sd: 0.94) 
 
3.87 (sd: 0.719) 
 
3.13 (sd: 0.99) 
 
Certainty about own 
future (1-5)* 
2.91 (sd: 0.67) 
 
3.13 (sd: 0.62) 
 
2.75 (sd: 0.46) 
 
Certainty about 
future of the world (1-
5)* 
2.61 (sd: 0.89) 
 
2.94 (sd: 1.00) 
 
2.75 (sd: 1.17) 
 
57 
 
*For certainty, 1: very uncertain, 5: very certain. For optimism, 1: very pessimistic, 5: very optimistic. 
Under all three images, participants encountered views and opinions most often in social 
media. Under image A and B, this was followed by the news, and thirdly by friends and 
family. Under image B, at shared third place came education. For image C, participants 
encountered views and opinions about the future second most often in conversations with 
friends and family, which was followed by the news. Concerning these top three sources, 
participants encountered views and opinions more often in them than respondents under 
image A and B. It could be that these external sources of information shaped the participants 
descriptions of the future more than in the other two images.  
 
Table 6. Means and Standard Deviations Concerning Frequency of Encountering Views and 
Opinions about the Future from Different Sources Under the Three Images (n = 34)* 
 Image A: high-tech 
utopia 
Image B: 
harmonious world 
Image C: times of 
change 
News 3.61 (sd: 1.31) 
 
3.44 (sd: 1.03) 
 
3.75 (sd: 1.17) 
 
Social media 3.65 (sd: 1.43) 
 
3.81 (sd: 1.20) 
 
4.13 (sd: 1.13) 
 
Friends and family 3.52 (sd: 0.95) 
 
3.31 (sd: 0.79) 
 
3.88 (sd: 0.64) 
 
Education/university 2.91 (sd: 1.04) 
 
3.31 (sd: 0.70) 
 
3.12 (sd: 0.99) 
 
Documentaries, movie, 
series or books 
2.96 (sd: 1.22) 
 
3.13 (sd: 0.81) 
 
2.88 (sd: 1.13) 
 
*1: never or less than once a year; 2: once a year; 3: once a month; 4: once a week; 5: every day or 
more often 
 
While these results are indicative of differences between the images, as noted, further 
statistical tests in bigger sample sizes should be conducted in order to draw generalisable 
conclusions.  
 
 
 
 
58 
 
4.4 Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) of Participants’ Images of the Future 
In this section, I present the Causal Layered Analysis of the participants images of the future. 
Under each of the three images, I first give a general description of the images, which mostly 
involve the litany level. I then move onto the underlying layers: systemic causes, 
worldview/discourse, and myth/metaphor. These layers are in part notions directly from the 
images and in part interpretations of the images based on review of previous literature and 
analysis that was presented in the background section. I first discuss present description and 
CLA of the most common image A, high-tech society, after which I move on to the second 
most common image B, harmonious world, and lastly image C, times of change. A summary 
of the CLA can be found in Table 6 on the following page. The significance and implications 
of the results are discussed in the next chapter (Chapter 4.5).  
 
4.4.1 Image A: A High-tech society 
The most common image among the participants depicts a high-tech society in the year 2050 
(probable 2050, n: 17, 50%; preferred 2050, n: 18, 53%; together, n: 35, 51%). The future 
images in this category included scientific and technological advancements, prosperity and 
economic development, a civil and stable society, improved infrastructure, a better 
environment, and a rich cultural landscape with no conflicts. In this image, positive 
development had generally occurred in all aspects of life and the world. One of the 
participants describe three main changes that have occurred since 2024 as follows:  
“The degree of social civilisation development is high; Infrastructure development 
is more complete; There are new breakthroughs in scientific and technological 
development.” (preferred 2050) 
In the images, participants anticipate a society transformed by technology, where automation 
and robotics have reduced the demands of work for individuals and demand of labour for the 
society, therefore making a departure from the current work-centred societal structures and 
norms in China. Work takes only one portion of the day for most participants, while the day is 
otherwise spent relaxing and on one’s chosen leisure activities, such as watching movies and 
exercising. Some participants imagine still facing high competition and pressure at work 
despite having more free time, while others imagine being free of such pressures. 
 
59 
 
Table 7. Summary of Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) of the Participants’ Images of the Future 
 A. High-tech society B. Harmonious World C. Times of Change 
Litany There is progress and 
development in most 
areas of life and the 
society (environment, 
civilisation, science…) 
Convenient, technology-
assisted life 
Robots are used for many 
jobs 
Advanced technology 
Globalisation 
Harmonious exchanges; 
world peace 
Improved environment, 
sustainable practices 
Technological 
advancements, but also 
technology-free activities 
Life is less centred on 
work 
Ongoing (and/or 
incoming) changes and 
turbulence: opposition, 
conflicts, chaos, unrest 
Alienation and 
disconnection from 
other people and what is 
humane 
Diversity and niche 
cultures 
Technological 
developments, 
convenient life 
Systemic/ 
Social 
Causes 
Continuation of current 
trajectories, fulfilment of 
China’s current aims 
Policies: prioritisation of 
convenience and 
efficiency through new 
infrastructure, efforts to 
maintain stability, and 
support for innovation 
Further increased role of 
technological solutions in 
the society 
Replacing human labour 
through automatization 
and robotisation 
Green transition 
Continuation of current 
policies and initiatives that 
emphasise sustainability 
and harmony  
Support especially for 
sustainability related 
innovation 
Automatization and 
robotisation 
Welfare systems have 
been improved 
Growing inequality 
Worsening 
unemployment  
Changing power 
structures 
Fast pace of life 
Disillusionment; 
rejection of societal 
expectations and 
pressures, emergence 
of social movements 
and/or opposition 
Failure to maintain 
social stability and 
satisfy the general 
public 
Worldview/ 
Discourse 
Technocratic optimism 
Technological 
advancements align with 
social harmony and the 
"greater good”  
The idea of linear 
progress 
 
Holistic sustainability 
(environmental, cultural, 
societal…) 
Embracing diversity 
Technological 
development and 
globalisation bringing 
peace, harmony and 
stability 
“Punk” 
Scepticism about and 
resistance towards a 
tech-driven, efficiency 
and materialism focused 
world 
The idea that progress 
comes at a cost 
Myth, 
Metaphor, 
Archetypes 
Technology as the 
“saviour” 
“High-tech utopia” 
Popular movies & art 
about the future -> 
especially technological 
aspects 
Chinese Dream 
 
The world as a "Global 
Village"  
A "harmonious future" 
where peace and equality 
prevail 
“Green utopia” 
“Surging undercurrents” 
“Lurking crises” 
“Dystopia” 
 
 
60 
 
Another participant noted the top three changes to be the following: 
“Infrastructure has become more advanced; More jobs may be completed by 
robots; Technology is getting better and better.” (probable 2050) 
Overall, advancements and proliferation of technology can be seen as having a major 
influence on people’s daily lives. Besides an all-encompassing sense of advancements and 
optimism, what differentiated the participants’ responses from the other images is also this 
emphasis on high technology. Its influence is not limited to the changes concerning work-life 
that were described above. The respondents describe life as convenient and smart. People 
enjoy the benefits of smart technology, with innovations like robots, internet of things (IoT), 
virtual reality (VR), and artificial intelligence (AI) integrated into everyday tasks. In the high-
tech society of 2050, a day may start as follows: 
“Artificial intelligence reports weather and news for me, and a smart home makes 
breakfast for me.” (probable 2050) 
“[…] making brunch reservations through an AI voice assistant” (preferred 2050).  
For the preferred image, one of the participants listed the main changes compared to today as 
follows: 
“There is VR-interaction; Robots have begun to be part of daily life; AI has 
become stable” (preferred 2050) 
Some other specified ways in which innovativeness shows includes drones, novel healthcare 
solutions (e.g., in curing cancer). Additionally, space exploration has continued, and there 
may even be flying cars. The influence of technological advancements is not only limited to 
the life of humans, but it has also had a considerable impact on the environment and 
sustainability efforts. In fact, the environment has seen improvement thanks to sustainable 
tech developments, with a strong emphasis on harmony between technology and ecological 
sustainability.  
“Regarding environmental protection, due to scientific and technological progress, 
people's goals have changed from energy conservation and emission reduction to 
finding new energy sources and neutralising pollution.” (probable 2050) 
Science and technology also encourage peace, perhaps through balance of terror: 
“With advanced science and technology, we dare not easily start a war.” 
(preferred 2050) 
61 
 
Overall, participants value cooperation on global challenges, some mentioning more specific 
terms like ‘win-win cooperation’ and ‘mutual aid’ besides just cooperation. These are usually 
used to refer to the international level (this was however not specified by participants). As an 
example, one of the participants used the following three terms to describe the future: 
“Mutual aid; Technology; Friendship” (probable 2050) 
As noted in the previous section concerning the common differences between probable and 
preferred images, in the preferred images the focus tended to be more on the personal level 
over wider scales of the future. Here, participants envisioned not only technological progress 
but also personal prosperity, with home and car ownership symbolising material stability. 
Participants mention having money to spend, which reflects valuing the ability to buy 
whatever one wants or needs. Prosperity was also a prevalent theme in the probable images, 
but in the probable images emphasis was more on prosperity and development of the society 
and economy. Overall participants depict a society that maintains a balance between material 
wealth and personal fulfilment.  
“I have money to spend and people to love.” (preferred 2050) 
The systemic causes behind the set of images include the rise of digital economy and the 
push for innovation-driven growth in China. A continuation of current trajectories can be 
clearly seen from these images. For instance, already in today’s world, China has the largest 
e-commerce market. Additionally, the party-state has heavily invested in things like AI, 5G, 
and quantum computing. Policies such as the Made in China 2025 initiative aim to position 
the country as a leader in technology and innovation, which is also included in the centennial 
aims for the year 2049: becoming a science and technology superpower. (e.g., Xinhua 2021a; 
MERICS 2019) These systemic causes are reflected in daily lives of the participants in 
today’s China and in the imagined futures. In the images, smart and convenient cities have 
continued to develop and be developed – likely supported by government policies.  
Technology plays a pivotal role in shaping daily life and beyond, from changing the role of 
employment in society to being the key to solving environmental issues. The society is 
depicted as stable in the images, which could be in part due to other aspects mentioned, such 
as AI. AI is already being incorporated for governance in China to ensure stability. Systems 
including facial recognition are justified as tools for security and efficiency. (e.g., Brown, 
Statman & Sui 2021.) However, no specific examples like this were given by the participants. 
Additionally, such systems are commonly viewed as dystopian rather than utopian. It is 
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possible that stability is achieved in other ways, and this is a topic that could be explored in 
future research.  
Finally, the post-00s are digital natives. Currently, young Chinese already commonly embrace 
digital tools in daily life. For instance, proliferation of social media and payment solution 
platforms like WeChat, Douyin (TikTok), Alipay, and more recently Xiaohongshu, as well as 
advancements in electric and driverless car production in the post-00s lifetime showcase the 
transformative potential of technology in the society. The images of 2050 reflect a 
continuation of this trend of increasing role of technology.  
Concerning the worldview/discourse level of causal layered analysis (CLA), technocratic 
optimism appears as a major underlying view. Technology is depicted as the ultimate driver 
of progress, empowering individuals and bringing about prosperity in all areas of life and the 
society as a whole. The participants hold a utopian belief in the ability of science and 
technology to solve environmental issues and drive societal stability and prosperity. The 
images also reflect the youth’s desires of continuing to access lifestyles enhanced by 
technology. It is noteworthy that no participants noted any negative impacts of technological 
advancements. 
Concerning this image, the most common values noted by the respondents were friendliness 
(n: 13), care (n: 9), integrity (n: 6) and equality (n: 6). Overall, in the high-tech society, 
human-centric values underline the images, suggesting an optimistic vision of the future 
where collaboration, care, and technological progress coexist. Here, also some Confucianist 
ideas appear to be reinvented for modernity, with the collectivist ethos where technological 
advancements are aligned with social harmony and the “greater good”.  
Moving onto the level of myth/metaphor, overall, the images align with the myth of a “high-
tech utopia” due to the optimism about technology and progress. A metaphor of technology as 
the “saviour” appears to be present in the images. It is depicted as rather divine, omnipotent 
force capable of solving societal and environmental problems. Finally, it should be noted that 
the images also align with popular depictions of the future familiar from movies, books, and 
other forms of art that is situated in the future. 
 
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4.4.2 Image B: A Harmonious World 
The harmonious world formed the second largest category of images (probable 2050, n: 9, 
26%; preferred 2050, n: 13, 38%; together, n: 22, 32%). Similarly to image of the high-tech 
society, this group of images is overall very positive. Technological advancements play an 
important role in the society and people’s lives. Like in image A, smart technologies like AI 
have become prevalent and affect life from work to entertainment. Robots have become 
popular, and although flying cars are not mentioned as in the image A, there are self-driving 
cars. Overall, there is not as much emphasis on technological advancements and the society is 
not quite as proliferated with advanced high-tech as in the image A. Instead, harmony, 
freedom, and globalisation are much more prevalent themes. While mutual aid and 
cooperation were also mentioned by some participants categorised under the high-tech 
society, the overall perspective was more patriotic and focused on the national level in 
comparison to this image. When asked to describe the image with three adjectives or 
descriptive phrases, the participants descriptions included the following: 
“High-tech; Civilised; Harmonious” (probable 2050) 
“Beautiful; Harmonious; Warm” (preferred 2050) 
As noted, globalisation was a central theme, especially cultural globalisation. Due to 
globalisation and cultural sharing, cultures appear to have blended to an extent while there is 
also greater cultural diversity. A participant describes two of the main changes as the 
following: 
“Earth is more like a global village; There are more blended cultures” (probable 
2050) 
Although there is global integration in preferred images, the global level is not mentioned in 
them as commonly as in probable images. In a sense, in the preferred images the focus on 
harmony extends to individual lives and societal interactions, rather than primarily on the 
international level. Overall, the world is a safe, peaceful, and harmonious place, which is 
reflected in the society and individuals’ lives. A quotation that shows this from the preferred 
images can be seen below. 
“Communication among people increases; Hearts become closer” (preferred 
2050) 
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Important themes also include sustainability. The condition of the environment has been 
improving, and sustainability is visible in participants’ lives: 
“I use environmentally friendly transportation to go out” (preferred 2050) 
Sustainability is however not limited to environmental sustainability, but also especially 
social sustainability was visible in the participants’ descriptions. In the images, social 
harmony pervades and connection between humans has strengthened. Social security and 
support systems have also been developed: 
“Children have some support, and the elderly have something to rely on.” 
(preferred 2050) 
Besides development in China, many other countries in the world have developed too. 
Conflicts have reduced and there may even be world peace. Notably, there is not only 
harmony between peoples but also harmony between humans and nature. In this image, 
besides global integration, the world is characterised by growing ecological consciousness. A 
participant describes the world as follows: 
“Reduction in conflicts and wars; Harmonious exchanges between humans and 
nature; Harmonious coexistence between humans and living things” (preferred 
2050) 
Importance of work has decreased, and there are opportunities to work from home. 
Additionally, balance between work and leisure is a key component in this envisioned future. 
While there is technological advancement, free time activities which do not involve any 
gadgets or screens are also valued. Some of the activities that were mentioned include 
meditation, reading books, handwriting to-do lists on notebook, and exercising. In fact, 
multiple participants emphasised that technology would not be used in these activities. 
Advancements in technology seem to be valued in part due to it having actually led to more 
time being freed to do things that do not involve tech. This is a key difference between the 
images A and B.  
“The environment is better; The society is more stable; There is greater cultural 
diversity.” (probable 2050) 
Concerning the systemic causes, the images showcase a set of current initiatives, goals, and 
policies in today’s China. However, the images emphasise another set of ongoing campaigns 
and future aims than in the image A. These include China’s initiatives and policies related to 
building an ‘ecological civilisation’ (生态文明, shengtai wenming). This has also been 
65 
 
included as one of the tenets of the ideology of the CCP. The related initiatives and aims 
include commitment to becoming carbon-neutral by 2060, afforestation programs and the 
Beautiful China initiative. Overall, the concept of “harmony” has been promoted by the CCP 
throughout the post-00s lifetime. (e.g., Xinhua 2021a.) 
Xi Jinping has also emphasised the interconnected nature of the modern world and advocated 
for a shared responsibility among nations to address common challenges through concepts 
like ‘a community with a shared future for mankind’ (人类命运共同体, renlei mingyun 
gongtongti). This refers to pursuing openness, inclusiveness, mutual benefit, equity and 
justice (SCIO 2023). The concept reflects China's broader efforts to position itself as a leader 
in fostering a cooperative and multipolar world order and is connected to initiatives like the 
Belt and Road Initiative (which too is to reach completion by 2049) (SCIO 2023).  
Overall, the images align with the green transition. The two discourses, and all their related 
initiatives and aims, align well with the images, which can in this sense be seen as an 
emphasis and continuation of these present campaigns. This would be through promotion of 
sustainable initiatives including social aspects such as welfare services, and innovation for 
sustainable solutions. Finally, the images also align with automatization and robotisation 
efforts, which would have shifted workload off from humans, making the society and 
people’s lives less centred on employment.  
Moving onto the worldview/discourse level, the images align with contemporary global 
sustainability narratives, involving not only environmental aspects but also cultural, social, 
and economic dimensions. According to prior research, the post-00s are an eco-conscious 
generation in comparison to previous generations. Many young people are more engaged in 
environmental issues, viewing them as more integral to a meaningful future than previous 
generations. This was reflected in this category of images.  
The top values listed to describe the future by the participants are as follows: equality (n: 8), 
peace/harmony (n: 7), friendliness (n: 6), and freedom (n:4). It could be said that there has 
been a silent revolution in this scenario – a generational value change – towards post-
materialism, sustainability and harmony from seeing wealth, consumerism, and working hard 
as measures of success. As noted, images of the future are indicators of today’s society, and 
therefore based on the answers a silent revolution may have occurred in these participants’ 
attitudes as well. For instance, one of the participants described their preferred scenario of 
2050 as with the following adjectives: 
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“Meaningful; Happy; Sustainable” (preferred 2050) 
Overall, collectivist ideals dominate over individualism, with emphasis on balancing personal 
aspirations with collective well-being. Moreover, prioritisation of trust and social harmony 
present in the images could be seen as echoes of Confucianist values. Indeed, Confucian 
values have been selectively used by Xi Jinping in many campaigns and in justifying policies, 
for instance, the social credit system23. 
Concerning the level of myth/metaphor, no metaphors were mentioned by the participants. 
However, a metaphor of a ‘Global Village’24 or garden could be seen here, as there appears to 
be a harmonious society (or world) where everyone plays their part in cultivating harmony, 
reflecting an ecological and relational view of human existence. In addition, rooted in the 
concept of “tian ren he yi” (harmony between heaven and humanity; 天人合一), 
environmental sustainability is viewed as going hand in hand with societal harmony. The 
images also resemble a common image of a “green utopia”, aligning with sustainability, better 
and more harmonious relationship between humans and nature, as well as improved 
environment. 
 
4.4.3 Image C: Times of Change 
Compared to the other two images, the images categorised under image C present a gloomier 
and more turbulent picture of 2050. Such images were also the least common among the 
participants (probable 2050, n:8, 24%; preferred 2050, n:3, 9%; out of all the images, n:11, 
16%). All participants’ images that included multiple notions of either some sort of chaos or 
negative developments were categorised under this title. One of the participants described the 
three main changes that have occurred as follows:  
“The power structure has changed; The gap between rich and poor widened; The 
number of unemployed people has increased” (probable 2050) 
In this image, the future is characterised by environmental deterioration, as well as domestic 
and/or international unrest, conflict, and presence of opposition. Concerning changes, there is 
                                                     
23 The social credit system is used to assess and influence actors (e.g., corporations) behaviour by rewarding 
compliance and penalising misconduct. 
24 The term global village (地球村; diqiu cun) has been commonly used by Xi Jinping, usually together with the 
“shared future for humankind” discourse. 
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increasing inequality, growing unemployment rate, and changes in the power structures within 
the society, as can be seen from the above quotation. There is cultural diversity with niche 
cultures having emerged and becoming more abundant. Cultural diversity may be one factor 
that has led to a more conflicting society with opposition present as well: 
“Culture: diversity but also opposition” (probable 2050) 
In most images within this category, chaos and negative changes are not omnipresent in all 
aspects of the future. The images can be considered to contain contradictions in that also 
stability, comfort, prosperity, and development are used to describe the future in some of the 
participants’ descriptions. In other words, the future is not seen as merely black and white. 
Some of the ways in which the participants described the year 2050 included the following: 
“Punk; Chaos; Prosperity” (probable 2050) 
“Conflict; Development; Local unrest” (preferred 2050) 
Although there is development too, there is not as much emphasis on technological 
development as in the image A. There is also no consensus on whether technological 
development has already been great or if it is still in a “bottleneck phase”.  
Participants’ work-life balance varies between individuals from sleeping all day and working 
all day. Overall, life has become more fast-paced, convenient, and efficient. One participant 
describes one of the changes that has occurred as decreased human-touch (人情味减少; 
renqingwei jianshao). This highlights a downside of the fast-paced future, where the essence 
of human connection and empathy could be compromised in favour of efficiency and 
productivity. This could lead to a lonely, impersonal, and cold world of disconnection from 
with what’s humane. 
“People’s life pace is accelerating, and human touch is decreasing” (probable 
2050) 
Moving onto the systemic causes, rather than a continuation and a development based on the 
current campaigns and aims of the CCP, the participants anticipate change or upcoming crisis. 
This could be due to changes in power structures (as mentioned by participants). 
Alternatively, this could be the result of unrest and opposition. Unfortunately, the nature of 
the changes was not further specified by participants. It could however mean either a change 
in leading faction or even party, or other changes in governance structures. In any case, 
changes in power structures are a major cause of changes in any society, and in the images, it 
68 
 
is evident that the party-state’s desire to maintain societal stability and achieve the Chinese 
Dream has failed to varying extents. 
These are reflected in recent movements such as ‘lying flat’. These express a form of 
relatively low-risk rebellion in a tightly controlled digital landscape. For some youth, such 
movements symbolise a revolutionary personal choice against materialism and overwork. (Su 
2023.) While not explicitly mentioned by the participants, such movements reflect 
dissatisfaction with societal pressures, economic inequality, and limited social mobility which 
were mentioned by the participants. The recent movements as well as the participants images 
reveal scepticism about a tech-driven, productivity-focused future such as in image A. 
Finally, in the images, it appears that rejection of expectations and social pressures or 
recognition of such applies to a minority of the participants in this sample (n: 8). Themes of 
alienation in hyper-connected worlds appear to resonate with young generations such as the 
post-00s who live in digital culture. The images appear to be underlined by emergence of 
counter movements and general disillusionment of the youth.  
Concerning worldview/discourse, scepticism about a tech-driven, efficiency and materialism 
focused world is evident. In addition, participants mention terms such as “punk” to describe 
the future, in addition to describing proliferation of niche cultures. This would indicate a 
worldview that emphasises diversity and alternative cultures, maybe even embodying a hint of 
anarchism.  
Chaos and changes could be interpreted as part of cyclical nature of change in societies (and 
beyond, e.g., in nature). Besides, the Chinese understanding of history and time often 
incorporates a cyclical view, rooted in Confucianism, Daoism, and the dynastic cycles. 
Finally, revolution in itself (however big or small) can be seen as a period of instability 
leading to desired change. In any case, the images do not (at least not as strongly) align with 
linear progress narratives, which were prominent especially in image A.  
As in other images of the future, under this category, many participants’ images contained 
contradictions. In the images, there also appears to be the idea that progress has its costs. 
While also some positive changes are mentioned by the participants, the images are not 
overwhelmingly optimistic as images A and B. Additionally, the blending, integration, and 
rise of new niche cultures would suggest that there are tensions arising, as well as from 
69 
 
different values. This could be due to phenomena such as globalisation, but this was not 
specified by participants.  
Finally, when it comes to myth/metaphor level of CLA, under this category of images, the 
participants used catchwords and metaphors to describe their vision more than in other 
images. “Surging undercurrent” (暗流涌动, anliu yongdong) which is one of the terms that 
was used refers to hidden tensions or forces that are not immediately visible but are powerful 
and could lead to significant changes or disruptions – presence of weak signals. It conveys the 
idea that beneath a seemingly calm or stable surface, there are underlying issues or 
movements that could potentially burst to the surface have a major impact on the stability of 
the society, leading to social change.  
Another participant noted that “crisis lurks on every side” (危机四伏, weiji sifu), which 
emphasizes the pervasive and imminent nature of risks. It can be used to describe situations in 
geopolitics, business environments, or personal circumstances where one faces multiple, 
pervasive threats or challenges. At the societal level, this expression suggests that the society 
faces multiple, pervasive risks or challenges, creating an environment of instability and 
uncertainty. 
Finally, the images remind of dystopic future portrayals popular in literature and other works 
of art. Dystopia was in fact used by one of the participants to describe the future. 
Nevertheless, this scenario was preferred by some participants (n: 3), although it was the least 
popular image. 
 
4.5 Discussion: Implications, Limitations, and Significance of the Study 
As noted, images of the future inform about the participants and the political, economic, 
social, and cultural context in which they live in. They guide future actions and planning and 
can therefore be also indicative of what the future may hold. Additionally, they reflect the 
present moment, including one’s wellbeing, values, worldview, possibilities, and 
expectations. Finally, they are reflections of wider societal phenomena like social or cultural 
change, environmental attitudes, and social mobility. (Ono 2003, 737 & 754; Rubin 2013, 40-
41). In his paper, Inayatullah (2019, 6) suggests that concerning the images, it is useful to 
consider potential indications in terms of the following: systemic changes, changes in 
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worldview, cultural change, new metaphors/narratives, and novel litanies. In this section, my 
main aim is to first reflect upon what my results indicate concerning the above aspects. I 
begin by discussing the results more generally, moving then to the three images and what they 
imply of today’s China (and the future). I also discuss the extent to which the images match 
Polak’s and Dator’s types of images of the future, as well as images found in previous 
research which were presented in the background chapter of this thesis. After discussing the 
images, I move on to discuss the limitations of the study itself, ending with a few thoughts on 
the significance of this study. 
 
4.5.1 Implications of the Results: General Remarks 
Firstly, I found that images of the future were often overlapping and not mutually exclusive. 
This aligns with basic assumptions of critical futures studies, findings of researchers in 
previous studies, and previous arguments about characteristics of East Asian images of the 
future. As was expected based on previous research (e.g., Rubin, 2013, 40-41), the images 
contained some contradicting elements. In addition, Park (2013, 19) suggested that images of 
the future are not mutually exclusive in East Asia. 
Furthermore, experts have speculated that the pandemic may have increased tensions 
concerning one’s vision of the future, for example, in terms of ’individualism and 
collectivism, autonomy and interdependence, freedom and control, [and] rights and 
responsibilities’ in all societies (Settersten et al. 2020, 2 & 10). Concerning tensions in life 
course and ideas of the future being increased by the pandemic, it is difficult to say much as 
this was not something that has been researched thoroughly prior to the pandemic. However, 
there were clearly tensions in values and ideas which showed as contradictions in the images. 
Tensions between expectations towards the youth and the youth’s ideals were most clear in 
image C, which appeared to contain an extent of rejection of expectations and pressures, 
overall dissatisfaction and an extent of disillusionment.  
That being said, many participants opted for a similar image when describing their probable 
and preferred visions of the future. The similarity in participants’ images concerning the 
probable 2050 and preferred 2050 suggests that the participant’s dreams about the future tend 
to be similar to what they imagine the future to likely be like. A possible conclusion from this 
would be that the participants are highly optimistic and certain about the future, thinking that 
71 
 
what the future likely turns out to be like aligns with their hopes and dreams. However, 
looking at the results presented in section 4.2 on future orientation, it does not appear as the 
only reason behind this, as the only a minority of the participants were highly certain and 
strongly optimistic about the future. The similarity could also be due to lack of opportunities 
to dream about and plan a preferred future, and/or a perceived lack of opportunities to create a 
desired future. Looking back at the results concerning future orientation, majority of the 
participants had a rather weak sense of agency concerning the future (although not zero), 
which would align with this possibility. 
Moving onto values, I previously introduced the list of 12 core socialist values that I 
suspected may show in my data as well. Looking at the values in the images, out of the 12 
values25 10 were mentioned in by the participants. Harmony (和谐) and Equality (平等) were 
each mentioned 16 times, followed by freedom (自由) that was mentioned 14 times, and 
friendliness (友善) which was mentioned 11 times. Integrity (诚信) was mentioned 9 times, 
while justice (公正) and civility (文明) were both mentioned 8 times. Other values appeared 
two or less times. However, while these have been widely promoted by the CCP, they are also 
common terms that could well have been present in the data without the campaigns as well. 
Still, it is fair to assume that the campaigns had some influence on their popularity.  
Concerning sources of views and opinions about the future, under all three images, 
participants encountered views and opinions most often in social media. This shows the 
power of images shared in social media, as frequent encountering certain types of images may 
influence what one thinks of the future. At the same time, future views presented there are not 
as curated and may be suggested by algorithms based on user data on their preferences. The 
types of views opinions and images that the youth encounters on social media would be one 
idea for further research. 
The future scale (from individual to global) has been studied in previous research, as 
presented in the background part (Chapter 2). In previous studies, it was found that most 
adolescents’ hopes and fears related to the general or collective future, and that there were 
more hopes and fears concerning the self were far fewer than those related to education, 
career and family (Zhang et al., 2015, 625-626; Zhao et al., 2018, 67). Ono (2003, 754-757) 
                                                     
25 For the purposes of seeing the prevalence of these specific terms, frequencies were counted based on exact 
Chinese terms rather than based on terms combined into keywords as in previous parts of this study. 
72 
 
on the other hand found that in Taiwan, half of the participants chose to discuss the global 
future when given the choice to discuss anything about the future (Ono 2003, 754-757). In my 
study, I found there to be differences between scales of the future that were considered 
depending on whether the participants imagined a probable or preferred future, as there was 
more focus on own future concerning the latter. This hypothesis too could be investigated in 
future research. 
Earlier on, I suggested that recent events such as the pandemic and related policies, as well as 
the record high youth unemployment could have resulted in the youth holding more 
pessimistic images about both the general future and their own futures. The averages and 
ranges of responses indicate that most participants were either moderately optimistic or 
moderately pessimistic, with a minority of the participants falling on the extremes. On 
average, the respondents perceived future of the world as slightly more uncertain than their 
own future, and they were slightly more optimistic about their own future than the future of 
the world. Chen (2016) found that Taiwanese elite high school students were interested in and 
optimistic about the global future, the future of the environment, and their personal future. 
However, in studies conducted in the West, youth have tended to have more pessimistic views 
about the general future in comparison to their own future (Rubin, 2013, 40-41). This latter 
finding aligns with my results. The finding could be speculated to be due to influences from 
the West, but could as well be due to a number of other factors. The topic needs further 
research before any conclusions can be drawn. 
A central theme in both probable and preferred images was technological advancements, with 
“technology” being the most frequently mentioned word in both probable and preferred 
images. This could be due to a majority of the participants studying a computer science major 
in university. Another reason could be the central role of technology in participants’ lives due 
to the proliferation of technological solutions such as smartphones (and the countless 
applications used in daily life in today’s China), and more recently the rise of AI, VR, and IoT 
technologies. Thirdly, technological advancement and technological superpower status is also 
a part the party-state’s aims for the year 2049, as noted. When looking at participants’ 
descriptions of futures in detail, it was clear that advancements were also often seen as closely 
related to the convenience of life, which appeared to be preferred by majority of participants. 
As noted, concerning the preferred images, responses were generally briefer as well as more 
abstract and general than those in the part about the realistic vision of 2050. These differences 
73 
 
might be due to imagining a preferable future not being something that the participants are 
used to. This could be because of China’s education system’s lack of encouraging critical 
thinking and challenging of prevalent narratives of the party-state. While innovativeness is 
valued, ideological education has been emphasised in recent years. In addition, futures studies 
is still a very new subject in China. This would highlight the importance of futures studies and 
its methods in encouraging participants to imagine preferred futures. Lastly, it might be that 
because this was the very last section of the survey, the participants were already weary and 
unmotivated to describe their images in detail.  
 
4.5.2 Implications of the Results: The Three Images of the Future 
As the title of the image tells, most changes were evident in image C (times of change), while 
image B (harmonious world) aligned with some of the party-state’s campaigns, discourse, and 
initiatives. Image A (high-tech society) appeared as the closest to the current campaigns, aims, 
strategies, and initiatives of CCP, therefore being the closest to a future as an extension of the 
trajectories of the present day. Some cultural changes were present in all the three images, 
with mostly either blending of cultures, emergence of new cultures, or both.  
Contrasting my results to results from previous studies, especially image B (harmonious 
world) resonates with other researchers’ work. For instance, Hoffman’s (2012) image of 
‘alternative future of peaceful development’ and Anthony’s (2012) ‘the harmonious society’ 
align well with the image. Image A (high-tech society) on the other hand somewhat aligns 
with Anthony’s (2012) image of ‘brave new China’, which is a market driven scenario where 
people have become alienated from nature. However, image A appears more as a technology 
driven scenario than market driven scenario, and the extent of alienation from nature is 
unclear, as environment is also cared for through technological solutions. Concerning 
attributes associated to East Asian futures by Park (2013)26, it is unclear to what extent these 
apply to my results. Perhaps the third point of “dancing with chaos” instead of trying to 
control it could be seen as aligning especially with image C.  
                                                     
26 These are: 1) Exploring appropriate alternative futures instead of mutually exclusive scenarios, 2) ‘finding an 
aesthetic moment rather than a predetermined moment’, 3) “dancing” with chaos instead of trying to control it, 
and 4) ‘using both the useful and the useless’ (Park, 2013, p. 19). 
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The results about future orientation under the different images would suggest that sense of 
uncertainty, pessimism, and tendency to think in short time scales when thinking about the 
future could be linked to viewing the future as gloomier and more turbulent, and the other 
way around. However, studies with larger samples should be done to investigate this before 
any real conclusions can be drawn.  
Out of Polak’s four types of images (see Chapter 2), images A and B align the best with a 
combination of essence optimism and influence optimism, where world is a good place and 
people have the power to change it for the better. Image C on the other hand could be seen as 
aligning the best with either a combination of essence pessimism and influence optimism, in 
which world is perceived as a bad place, but people have the power to change it for the better, 
or with a combination of essence pessimism and influence pessimism, where chaos is seen as 
inevitable, and humans cannot affect it. (Polak, 1973, 16-17; Kaboli & Tapio 2018, 3, Table 
1.) Out of Dator’s four images of the future, image A resembles ‘Continued Growth’27 the 
best, while image B best resembles Dator’s image type of ‘Disciplined’28, and image C can be 
interpreted as either ‘Transformative’29 or ‘Collapse’30 (or a mix of both) out of Dator’s image 
types. I will next give some final remarks about what each image tells of today’s China. 
Image A (high-tech society) reflects the ideas of a generation raised during China’s rapid 
technological growth, such as advancements in AI, e-commerce, and green tech. They have 
witnessed how technology reshaped urban life and improved China's global status in e.g., 
trade. The participants also appear to have trust in party-state-led development, which has 
prioritised technological progress and national modernisation. This potentially fosters 
confidence in technological solutions to societal and environmental problems, as well as 
enhancing one’s life.  
Image B (harmonious world) reflects influence of both traditional and modern values, and a 
blend of ideals of harmony with aspirations for sustainability, diversity and inclusivity. It 
appears to suggest a yearning for balance in a society where rapid development has created 
disparities and environmental challenges. Many post-00s have grown up with greater 
                                                     
27 ‘Growth’ refers to phenomena such as continued economic growth. (Park, 2013; Dator, 2019.) 
28 ‘Discipline’ refers to a scenario where society has become organised around an overarching set of values. 
These are usually traditional or ancient value sets. (Park, 2013; Dator, 2019.) 
29 In ‘transformation’, new forms of beliefs, behaviour and organisation have emerged and shape the scenario. 
(Park, 2013; Dator, 2019.) 
30 For collapse, a range of different causes of the collapse can be part of the scenario. These include causes such 
as resource exhaustion, military attack, and economic instability to name a few. (Park, 2013; Dator, 2019.) 
75 
 
exposure to global issues through social media, study-abroad opportunities, and China's 
increasing international presence. This vision might also indicate a growing sense of civic 
responsibility, as well as environmental and social consciousness among Chinese youth. 
Based on this image, the post-00s are aware of climate change and social inequality, and they 
appear to hope for changes to address these challenges. 
Image C (times of change). The post-00s generation has witnessed geopolitical tensions, 
economic shifts, and domestic challenges such as housing affordability and high youth 
unemployment. This image reflects apprehensions about domestic and global instability, 
manifesting as a sense of uncertainty and perhaps even anxiety. Growing up during times of 
rapid growth, technological development, and changing lifestyles the youth may feel the 
strain of intergenerational divides and changing social norms. These frictions and tensions 
may have in part influenced the images. The youth are aware of costs of rapid development, 
such as risks of environmental degradation, political tension, and economic volatility. They 
appear to view their future as possibly shaped by the challenges for China in both the global 
world and domestically, while also viewing their own futures as uncertain. 
Overall, image C showcases the emergence of a desire for change, and a complex interplay 
between progress and its costs. Whereas in images A and B, there were hints of continuation 
of current policy-directions and campaigns of the party state, in this image, the participants 
appear to anticipate amplification of social counter movements.  
 
4.5.3 Limitations and Significance of the Study 
There are many limitations to my study, from survey design to depth of analysis, which are 
mostly related to time and resource constraints. First of all, the size and depth of the data 
about each individual’s image varied. For one part of the question, the greatest difference was 
in the sections about changes concerning the future. There, responses varied between 2-55 
Chinese characters. While others mentioned areas such as “environment” to answer this 
question, others additionally described the type of change in detail in multiple levels (e.g., 
society, global level, and personal life). The latter was the type of data that I aimed to collect 
for this question, and the shorter responses could have been avoided through separating the 
question into two parts (as an example: 1. Which area has most change, 2. Please describe the 
change). At the same time, this choice was made in order to ensure that a large enough sample 
76 
 
would be collected, as I was afraid that participants would not finish filling the survey if it 
was too long and had too many requirements for the answers e.g., concerning length. This is 
however one of the necessary improvements which I would make to the survey design should 
I conduct a similar study in the future: having more specific questions with stricter 
requirements for answers. 
The results indicate that what aspects of the future readily come to the participants’ mind 
vary. While technology was a popular theme to consider, some participants chose to discuss 
environment or culture, while others omitted these aspects. As was described in the 
introduction, one of the aims of my study was to find out which aspects of the future are 
important to the participants. Although the sample is small, these aspects can inform future 
research, and their accuracy can be tested in larger samples. However, there are some 
limitations concerning this aspect of the study. In section 3.1.2, I discussed my choices 
concerning the survey design, including which terms were used as examples in a few of the 
questions (“environment, society, technology, infrastructure, culture”, and “caring”). It is 
possible that giving these examples may have influenced the results, but opting to not give 
any examples, based on feedback from those who reviewed the survey, it may have been 
unclear what was meant (i.e., future of the world and values). This is a limitation of the study, 
as it might be that the images were influenced by the examples.  
While looking at the data, there were many instances when I wished I could have asked to 
participant to elaborate or clarify their response. The analysis could also be deeper if I had 
more time. However, taking into account the constraints of this study, and the long process of 
collecting the data, I was still pleased about the data and results that I was able to obtain. 
Besides the data collection method and question set design, exploring more innovative ways 
of online data collection concerning images of the future would likely provide interesting 
results. One interesting possibility would be to enable the participants to turn their images of 
the future in their minds to actual pictures by describing them to AI. Also the three images 
could be used in future research. Some survey studies which I came across while conducting 
literature review used multiple images in the questionnaire, from which the participants were 
to choose e.g., which was the probable and which the preferred image for them. The results of 
this study could be used to draft the images used as options in future survey studies. 
As noted in the introduction, the results of the study should be interpreted as a snapshot – a 
localised and time-bound depiction of this particular group’s experiences and perceptions. 
77 
 
This is due to the small sample size (N: 34). The research holds significance through 
providing information about the appropriateness of the research design and survey design in 
the context of China, aiding in the design of further studies on similar topics. Whether the 
three images found in this study are prevalent on larger and differing samples in China could 
be investigated in future research. It would be interesting to see if such positive and 
technology centric scenarios would be popular among students with different majors, such as 
social sciences or environmental science.  
 
78 
 
5 Conclusion 
In this research, I collected and analysed Chinese university students’ (N: 34) images of the 
future. My main research question concerned what the participants’ probable and preferred 
images of the future were like. As my secondary research questions, I explored some of the 
underlying factors behind the formation of the images. Finally, I also explored the what the 
participants’ relationship with the future was like (i.e., their future orientation). 
As noted, research on Chinese youth’s relationship with the future is particularly timely due 
to increased perceived hopelessness of the youth, recent adverse events such as the Covid-19 
pandemic and numerous conflicts in the world, as well as high youth unemployment and other 
local challenges. In my research, I found that on average, the participants fell to the midrange 
in a continuum from certainty to uncertainty (own future: 2.94; future of the world: 2.80)31 as 
well as optimism and pessimism (own future: 3.71; future of the world: 3.44)32 concerning the 
future. The general future was perceived a little more uncertain (on average) than one’s own 
future, and the respondents were slightly more optimistic about their own future than the 
future of the world. Finally, concerning agency, half of the participants indicated that while 
they felt that there was some predictability, the future was largely beyond their control, 
therefore representing a rather weak sense of agency.  
Through thematic analysis, I found three distinct images in the data. Firstly, the most common 
was an image of a high-tech society (n: 35; 51%33). In this image, progress and development 
had occurred in most areas of life and the society, and as the title suggests, life is proliferated 
with advanced technology. This image came the closest to the Chinese Dream and current 
aims, initiatives and campaigns related to development, innovation and technology in China. 
The second most common image was of a harmonious world (n: 22; 32%), in short, a 
sustainable and peaceful globalised world where people lead meaningful lives. The image 
aligned the best with some of China’s aims and initiatives related to sustainability. In the third 
image of times of change (n: 11; 16%), in which there were some societal issues, unrest, 
disconnection, and chaos present, but the image was also marked by cultural diversity, some 
technological development, and convenient lifestyles. 
                                                     
31 On a scale from 1: very uncertain to 5: very predictable. 
32 On a scale from 1: very pessimistic to 5: very optimistic. 
33 These refer to number and percentage of images out of both preferred and probable images (N: 68). 
79 
 
In his research, Polak (1973) concluded that modern era societies lack an image of the future, 
which leads to their stagnation and decline. From the perspective of Polak’s arguments, 
research on Chinese people’s images of the future is particularly interesting due to the 
Chinese Dream as well as related aims and ideas about the future widely promoted by the 
party-state. As was hypothesised in and based on previous research, diversity and tensions in 
ideas and intergenerational value differences were evident in my research. 
Together, the three images suggest a complex societal landscape in today’s China, where 
optimism about progress, harmonious relations, and technological advancements coexists 
with concerns about inequality, sustainability issues, and uncertainty – for instance, 
manifested as concerns about possible future crises. A preference for high-tech and 
harmonious futures appear to indicate a relatively high level of trust in the government's 
ability to manage challenges, while the anticipation of turbulence would suggest awareness of 
unresolved systemic issues which seem to be perceived as worsening. 
While my research focused on views and images of the future, my primary aim in this study 
was to learn about the present, as images of the future reflect the participants’ views and their 
context in the here and now. Images of the future inform about the participants and their 
political, economic, social, and cultural context in which they live in. All in all, the post-00s 
generation is generally more educated than the previous generations and also more tech-
savvy. The latter showed in the respondents’ answers through mentions of high-tech as well 
as through the respondents’ reporting that they encountered opinions and views about the 
future most often in social media. Moreover, the post-00s are expected to carry out the 
“Chinese Dream” and “National Rejuvenation” but shouldering high expectations and 
pressures may lead to rejection of such at least for a part of the youth. The data reflects China 
as both a major global power and a nation navigating domestic tensions, which were expected 
to be increasing in the future by some of the participants.  
While participants’ preferred and probable descriptions of the future fit under the same three 
images, there were some differences between participants’ descriptions of probable and 
preferred futures. Overall, concerning the preferred images, responses were generally briefer 
as well as more abstract and general than those in the part about the probable vision of 2050. 
In addition, the responses for preferred 2050 tended to centre more around one’s own life, in 
comparison to the probable 2050 images. There were also some differences concerning 
prevalence of different keywords between the images. For instance, while technology was the 
80 
 
most mentioned keyword overall, in the probable images, participants mentioned technology 
much more often than when imagining preferred futures. Additionally, the environment was a 
central theme in the participants imaginings of the future, more so in preferred images than in 
probable. 
Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) which I used in my analysis has not yet been widely used for 
the analysis of individuals’ images of the future, but it has been noted to produce rich and 
meaningful analysis in the few existing studies (E.g., Kaboli & Tapio 2018; Hoffman 2019). 
In my research, I found the framework to be useful for deepening the analysis, ensuring that 
the analysis is comprehensive (i.e., encompassing all the levels) and for organising my ideas 
and presenting them in a coherent way. While it was possible to use CLA for the survey 
responses, I do think that interviews would provide richer data concerning a topic like this, 
and the participants could be asked more in depth about each of the levels. A second-best 
option would be a longer survey format. As the survey had to be kept rather concise due to 
time and resource constraints, questions specifically concerning the myth/metaphor level, for 
instance, were not included. 
Finally, as the sample was very small (N: 34), the results are not generalisable. Instead, the 
results of the study should be interpreted as a snapshot – a localised and time-bound depiction 
of values, experiences, and perceptions within this particular group of university students. The 
research holds significance through providing information about the appropriateness of the 
research design and survey design in the context of China, aiding in the design of further 
studies on the theme. For example, the three images found in this thesis could be used as part 
of a survey to investigate their popularity in larger samples. There are also limitations to this 
study due to time and resources and many questions were left unanswered that could be 
explored in future research. For instance, a more detailed review could be conducted about 
where and what kind of views and opinions about the future the youth encounters. Another 
possibility would be to consider would be to further analyse what aspects and aspects of the 
future are the youth most concerned about.  
“The future not only must be perceived; it also must be shaped.” (Fred Polak, 
1973, 5) 
What shapes the future are in part our images of it. Therefore, it is crucial to look at the 
images we have, and to encourage people to imagine the future, so that the future is not 
merely shaped by unquestioned hegemonic visions of it. Dreaming of alternative futures can 
81 
 
be perceived either as an opportunity or a threat by those holding power. My hope is that it 
would be considered increasingly as something enriching and beneficial for a society as for 
individuals wellbeing too. I also hope that the findings can inspire research in the future, 
provide actionable insights to those engaged with the youth (e.g., educators), and that the 
survey inspired the participants to imagine and actively create alternative, desirable futures 
beyond the study itself.  
 
 
82 
 
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Appendices 
Appendix 1 Survey in Chinese 
 
87 
 
 
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89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
90 
 
Appendix 2 Survey Structure in English 
I. THE PARTICIPANT 
1. Personal information 
a. Age 
b. Gender 
c. University 
d. Year of study 
e. Major 
f. Hometown city tier  (e.g., first tier city) 
g. Previously/currently attended future studies courses? Y/N 
 
II. FUTURE ORIENTATION: GENERAL QUESTIONS ABOUT THOUGHTS AND 
FEELINGS ABOUT THE FUTURE 
2. How often do you think about: 
a. Your personal future 
b. Future of the people you know 
c. The future of your city 
d. The future of your country 
e. The future of the world 
 
3. How often do you encounter views and opinions about the future in: 
a. The news 
b. Social media 
c. In conversations with family or friends 
d. In education/university 
e. In documentaries, movies, series or books 
 
 
 
 
 
 
91 
 
4. Which of the sentences describes you the best: 
a. There are many possibilities for my future. The future is something I can 
proactively plan and formulate. 
b. The future is unknowable. I cannot change what will happen in the future, I 
can only adapt to what will happen. 
c. The future is somewhat predictable, but it is largely determined by economic, 
social, and political factors beyond my control. 
 
III. OWN FUTURE AND GENERAL FUTURE 
In this section, the same questions were repeated for a) personal future and b) future of the 
world, which was defined as referring to environment, society, technology, infrastructure, 
culture, etc. 
5. When you think about the future, which time period do you most often think about? 
6. How do you feel about the future? (pessimistic – optimistic) 
7. How certain or uncertain do you feel about the future? 
 
IV. IMAGINING THE YEAR 2050: PROBABLE AND PREFERRED SCENARIOS 
In this section, the same questions for both scenarios (most likely and preferred/ideal): 
8. List three adjectives/descriptive phrases that describe the scenario. 
9. List three prominent values in the society. 
10. Short description of major changes that have occurred (concerning e.g., environment, 
society, technology, infrastructure, culture…) 
11. Describe what you are doing on an ordinary day during: 
a. Morning: 
b. Noon: 
c. Evening: 
12. Any additional details/description (optional) 
V. Comments about the survey (optional)