Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=csje20
Download by: [Turku University] Date: 21 December 2015, At: 06:49
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
ISSN: 0031-3831 (Print) 1470-1170 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/csje20
Future Elementary School Teachers' Conceptual
Change Concerning Photosynthesis
Ilona Ahopelto , Mirjamaija Mikkilä-Erdmann , Erkki Anto & Marjaana
Penttinen
To cite this article: Ilona Ahopelto , Mirjamaija Mikkilä-Erdmann , Erkki Anto & Marjaana
Penttinen (2011) Future Elementary School Teachers' Conceptual Change Concerning
Photosynthesis, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 55:5, 503-515, DOI:
10.1080/00313831.2010.550060
To link to this article:  http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2010.550060
Published online: 06 Sep 2011.
Submit your article to this journal 
Article views: 214
View related articles 
Citing articles: 3 View citing articles 
Future Elementary School Teachers’ Conceptual Change Concerning
Photosynthesis
Ilona Ahopelto, Mirjamaija Mikkila¨-Erdmann, Erkki Anto and Marjaana Penttinen
University of Turku
The purpose of this study was to examine conceptual change among future
elementary school teachers while studying a scientific text concerning
photosynthesis. Students’ learning goals in relation to their learning outcomes
were also examined. The participants were future elementary school teachers. The
design consisted of pre- and post-tests. The study revealed that student teachers
have severe misconceptions concerning photosynthesis. However, the results
indicated that a coherent expository text works as an effective support in the
learning process. Further, results showed that students who express high-level
learning goals are more likely to undergo conceptual change than students with
low-level learning goals. The study highlights the importance of science education
in teacher training at universities.
Keywords: conceptual change, learning goals, science learning, teacher education
The focus of this exploratory study is to examine future elementary school teachers’
preconceptions and conceptual change concerning the topic of photosynthesis.1 Concep-
tual change is a process where some previous conceptions are abandoned under access
to new information, and knowledge structures are rearranged (see, e.g., Duit, 1999).
Conceptual change can be perceived as a complex process in which an individual
reorganizes existing knowledge structures (Limon & Mason, 2002; Posner, Strike,
Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982). Conceptual change suggests some kind of goal-oriented
activity, and hence can be called an intentional process (Sinatra & Mason, 2008).
Many earlier studies on conceptual change have revealed that children experience con-
siderable difficulties in understanding scientific phenomena (see, e.g., Duit, 1999;
Roth, 1990; Vosniadou, 1994; Vosniadou, Ioannides, Dimitrakopoulou, & Papademetriou,
2001).
ISSN 0031-3831 print/ISSN 1470-1170 online
# 2011 Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
DOI: 10.1080/00313831.2010.550060
http://www.informaworld.com
Ilona Ahopelto, Department of Teacher Education, University of Turku; Mirjamaija Mikkila¨-
Erdmann, Department of Teacher Education, University of Turku; Erkki Anto, Department of
Teacher Education, University of Turku; Marjaana Penttinen, Department of Teacher Education,
University of Turku.
The authors wish to thank the Turku University Foundation and the Finnish Cultural Foundation for
financial support during this study. The paper is part of the first author’s doctoral dissertation.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ilona Ahopelto, Assistentinkatu 5,
University of Turku, 20014, Turku, Finland. E-mail: ijahop@utu.fi.
1In Finland, elementary school teachers study at least 5 years at university and graduate with a
Masters of Education. The curriculum consists of courses on educational science, research methods,
the didactics of different subjects, teaching practises and a master’s thesis.
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
Vol. 55, No. 5, October 2011, 503–515
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
Conceptual Change in Science Learning—the Case of Photosynthesis
One of the very well documented problematic themes in science classrooms is photosyn-
thesis. Young learners seem to think that plants take their ready-made “food” from the soil
(Hatano & Inagaki, 1997; Mintzes & Wandersee, 2005; Roth, 1990). Serious misconceptions
concerning photosynthesis are often based on everyday notions that are in conflict with the
scientific model, such as water for plants being viewed as the same as food for animals (see,
e.g., Duit & Treagust, 2003; Mintzes & Wandersee, 2005; Roth, 1990; Vosniadou, Vamva-
koussi, & Skopeliti, 2008). Photosynthesis is an example of an extremely complex phenom-
enon that is studied many times during the primary school years. It can be considered one of
the most important topics in the biology curriculum, as all life on Earth depends on the ability
of green plants to produce oxygen and to transform solar energy into chemical energy, which
is then used by animals as an energy source.
Chi (2008) proposes that conceptual change is difficult to achieve because it often
demands changes in and rearrangement of one’s fundamental frame theories, which form
the basis of knowledge structures and are highly resistant to change (Vosniadou, 2007a,
2007b; Vosniadou et al., 2008). A typical naı¨ve frame theory concerning photosynthesis is
derived from the assumption that plants take their nourishment ready-made from their
environment, as animals do, and thus the learner is not aware of the ontological difference
between plants and animals. Very often, it requires a huge reorganization of knowledge struc-
tures to understand that plants enable the existence of animals by storing solar energy as
chemical energy and by producing oxygen and consuming carbon dioxide.
Difficulties in learning at school frequently seem to derive from tenacious misconceptions
constructed in everyday interactions, which offer enough explanatory power in that context.
For example, we know, based on everyday experiences, that a houseplant will die if we forget
to water it. However, understanding the scientific explanation for why plants need water and
what they do with it in a process called photosynthesis usually requires conceptual change.
Further, scientific concepts are often used differently among science teachers and students
(e.g., paralleling the greenhouse effect and climate change), which may result in misunder-
standings and difficulties in the conceptual change process (see Wiser & Amin, 2001). Mis-
conceptions have been studied and documented mostly among children, but it has been
suggested that some of these misconceptions exist even among adults (see, e.g., Mintzes
& Wandersee, 2005). It seems also that future elementary school teachers’ misconceptions
and problems with conceptual change are an unexplored research area. Hence, in this
study, we try to identify what kind of misconceptions future elementary school teachers
have concerning photosynthesis and discover if they are able to undergo a conceptual change.
Learning Goals and Metaconceptual Awareness as a Mediator of Conceptual
Change
Students adopt different goals and purposes for their studying, and these have been docu-
mented to have an important role in learning (see, e.g., Entwistle & McCune, 2004; Pintrich,
Marx, & Boyle, 1993). Setting high-level learning goals and monitoring them requires meta-
conceptual awareness, which means that one is aware of his/her previous conceptions and
possible misconceptions (Vosniadou, 1994). This kind of intentional learning is usually con-
sidered a prerequisite for successful learning, such as that which occurs in conceptual change
(Chi & Roscoe, 2002; Limo´n & Mason, 2002; Sinatra & Mason, 2008).
504 AHOPELTO, MIKKILA¨-ERDMANN, ANTO, AND PENTTINEN
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
It is difficult for learners to become aware of conflicts that exist between their own expla-
nations of scientific phenomena and the actual scientific model, as most learning is based on
everyday observations. This is because naı¨ve models are usually very robust and they offer a
satisfying explanation in everyday life (Mikkila¨-Erdmann, 2001; Vosniadou, 2007b). Hence,
previous studies have revealed that years of intentional teaching and learning are ordinarily
demanded to achieve a conceptual change (see, e.g., Chi & Roscoe, 2002; Chinn & Brewer,
1993; Duit & Treagust, 2003; Vosniadou, 1994, 2007a, 2007b). This is often the case when
photosynthesis is the topic, as it is an example of a scientific phenomenon for which a scien-
tific explanation is impossible to learn through observation. Because of that, it may be
suggested that students’ learning goals may operate as mediators in the process of conceptual
change, so that students who set more ambiguous learning goals that challenge their previous
conceptions are more willing to undergo a conceptual change than students who aim to focus
on more superficial things, such as enriching the amount of detail (see Pintrich et al., 1993).
Sometimes the restructuring of knowledge structures and conceptual change may not
succeed. The learner may try to add new information to old knowledge structures without
recognizing conflicts between old conceptions and new information. This may lead to the
development of a synthetic model that has characteristics of both scientific and naı¨ve expla-
nations (Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992). In synthetic models concerning photosynthesis, one
may know that green plants do not take ready-made nourishment from the environment,
but still think that in the spring a farmer spreads nutrients onto the field so that plants get
“food” to grow (paralleling water and food: see, e.g., Mintzes & Wandersee, 2005; Roth,
1990). In cases like this, the learner may confuse everyday notions and scientific knowledge.
The scattered nature of the synthetic model destroys the coherence of the mental knowledge
structure and causes confusion in the learner’s mind (Vosniadou, 1991). Therefore, one may
on some level be aware of the importance of photosynthesis but still not deeply understand
how photosynthesis is related to global problems such as famine in many poor countries. In
this study, our purpose is to design diagnostics to evaluate student teachers’ prior knowledge
and conceptual understanding concerning photosynthesis and consider the role of learning
goals in conceptual change among future elementary school teachers.
The Elementary School Teacher as a Science Educator and as a Science Learner
The elementary school teachers’ role as science educator is crucial, because they are respon-
sible for instruction in all the natural sciences during children’s first 6 school years in Finland.
Thus, teachers have to master basic knowledge in many scientific fields such as physics, chem-
istry, and biology. These years are crucial for children’s science learning, because young children
are typically inherently interested in their environment (Wood-Robinson, 1995). From a univer-
sity pedagogical point of view this is a challenge, because before teachers are able to recognize
misconceptions among their students, they should become aware of their own misconceptions,
and achieve conceptual change by abandoning whatever previous misconceptions they may have
in any of several different scientific fields. Only after that are they able to pay attention to stu-
dents’ learning difficulties and support conceptual change in their own science classrooms.
The most important instrument for teachers is the textbook, as a great part of the learning
required in the school context occurs through successful text reading (Mason, Gava, & Boldrin,
2008; Mikkila¨-Erdmann, 2002). Textbooks also dominate science instruction in the school
(Hynd, 2001; Mason et al., 2008). The problem is that textbooks usually present scientific
models and concepts as if learners had no prior knowledge, or only relevant prior knowledge,
CONCEPTUAL CHANGE CONCERNING PHOTOSYNTHESIS 505
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
about the topic to be learned. Traditionally, textbook texts do not take readers’ preconceptions
into consideration (Mikkila¨ & Olkinuora, 1995; Mikkila¨-Erdmann, 2002). That makes it diffi-
cult for the learner to compare his/her own ideas with those presented in the textbook and to
notice when changes in their own conceptions are needed. These kinds of texts often cannot
support deep learning and, typically, students just learn to reproduce the text instead of achiev-
ing conceptual change (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983; Kintsch, 1986).
In university studies, the role of textbooks and other learning materials is even more impor-
tant than in elementary school, because university courses require a lot of independent study from
the student. Thus, the elementary school teacher’s role as a science educator as well as a science
learner presents extreme challenges for teacher education. These are the reasons why studying
adult students’ conceptions concerning scientific phenomena and conceptual change supported
by textbook text is important. Further, we suggest that there are individual differences among
students as, for example, in their learning goals, which can support or hinder conceptual change.
Research Questions
Our first research question is how future elementary school teachers’ preconceptions about
photosynthesis differ from the scientific model. Photosynthesis is a prerequisite for living organ-
isms on Earth and thereby is perhaps the most important theme in the biology subject. The
Finnish nationwide curriculum pays considerable attention to photosynthesis, and the theme
is studied in almost every class year from elementary school to high school (Finnish Educational
Government, 2003, 2004). Previous studies concerning children’ misconceptions have docu-
mented the phenomenon well (see, e.g., Mikkila¨-Erdmann, 2002), but it can be further
suggested that adult students may also have difficulties in understanding the complex topic
of photosynthesis (see, e.g., Ross, Tronson, & Ritchie, 2005). The second question of this
study is targeted at examining the role of expository texts in conceptual change. While we
know the important role of textbooks in science learning (Mason et al., 2008; Mikkila¨-
Erdmann, 2002) our second research question concerns how students’ conceptions about photo-
synthesis change during a text-reading procedure. Our third research question deals with stu-
dents’ learning goals. We ask how the level of learning goals students set before text reading is
related to learning outcomes. Based on previous studies, we hypothesize that those students
who express high-level learning goals may benefit more from the text than will students with
low-level learning goals (see Entwistle & McCune, 2004; Sinatra & Mason, 2008).
Methods
Participants
The participants were 18 students of around 23 years of age from one teacher training
school in Finland. All participants except one had studied all of the compulsory courses in
biology (15 credits), and two of the participants had studied biology as a secondary
subject (35 credits). Three of the participants were men, the rest were women. The partici-
pants volunteered to take part in the study and they were able to compensate for certain
missing credits in research studies by taking part in the study.
Procedure
The empirical phase was conducted in the laboratory setting using a single case approach.
This study was part of a larger research project where the eye tracking method is used.
506 AHOPELTO, MIKKILA¨-ERDMANN, ANTO, AND PENTTINEN
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
The research consisted of two major parts: an orientation section and a study section
(Figure 1). The first part of the research design was an orientation section, the purpose of
which was to familiarize the participant with the test situation through reading from the com-
puter screen. The study proper began with a task where the participant was asked to draw a
mind map or in some other way express his/her ideas about photosynthesis. The purpose of
this section was to orient the student to the subject area of the study.
After that, the participant answered nine written questions in the pre-test. All of the ques-
tions concerned photosynthesis from different points of view and they were categorized into
three groups. The groups were: fact questions, text-based comprehension questions, and
generative questions. Answering the fact questions, for example, “Explain the terms a) auto-
trophic, b) heterotrophic” required nothing more than reproducing of factual knowledge
expressed in the treatment text. Successful answering the text-based comprehension ques-
tions in the post-test required understanding the connection between concepts that were pre-
sented in the treatment text. An example of a text-based question is: “What is the role of
plants in food chains? Why?” The most difficult, generative questions required construction
of a mental model concerning photosynthesis. Generative questions were, for example: “How
do a dandelion, an earthworm (herbivore), and a mole (insectivorous) get their a) nourish-
ment? b) other vital things?” There were no time limitations for the pre- and post-tests.
After the pre-test questions, the participant was asked to write down further things s/he
would like to know about photosynthesis. It was assumed that the questions of the pre-test
would have aroused some questions in students’ minds, depending on his/her previous
knowledge and learning goals towards photosynthesis.
During the treatment, the participant read from the computer screen an expository text
(366 words) concerning photosynthesis. The researcher advised the student to read the text
so that s/he understood the content of the text. The treatment text was specifically created
for this study and it resembled a textbook text whilst still being more argumentative and
coherent than traditional texts, meaning that relations such as causes and consequences
Figure 1. The research design.
CONCEPTUAL CHANGE CONCERNING PHOTOSYNTHESIS 507
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
between concepts were better explained. During the reading, there were no time limitations,
and one could move backward and forward in the text. After the reading, the post-test was
conducted. In the post-test, the participant had an opportunity to compare his/her previous
answers, because the questions were identical to those in the pre-test.
Participants were interviewed twice during the treatment. The first interview was a stimu-
lated recall in which the eye movement data were used as a stimulus for the student to explain
his/her cognitive processing during the reading. The final section of the study was a half-
structured interview where the student was asked to answer a few questions that measured
understanding of photosynthesis. All the interviews were video recorded. Two interview
recordings failed.
The post-test was repeated after seven months. Participants in the delayed post-test were
12 of the 18 volunteers who had taken part in the earlier intervention. Students were asked to
write answers for the same nine written exercises as they had done in the first phase of the
study. There were no time limitations in the delayed post-test.
Data Analysis
The data was analysed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. First, we created a
scientific conceptual flow chart based on the treatment text (Figure 2). The starting point of
the chart was the nourishment supply of living organisms, because that made it possible to
point out categorical differences between animals and plants. The chart was used as an ana-
lyzing tool, and original links between conceptions were replaced with links that were based
on participants’ conceptions in the pre- and post-tests and in the interviews. The purpose of
this qualitative analysis was to create a chart that would represent the participants’ mental
representation before and after the test situation as realistically as possible.
Different color symbols were used to represent different kinds of conceptions. Green
colored links represented correct conceptions, yellow colored links represented simplified
conceptions, blue colored links represented correct but external-to-text conceptions, and
red colored links represented false conceptions. The total scores were calculated so that
green and blue colored links were each worth two points, and yellow links were worth
one point, whereas every red link decreased the total score by two points. The maximum
score of the scientific model was therefore 98 points. In theory, the participant could reach
an even higher score if he/she had knowledge that was not mentioned in the text and so
was not required to know. This flow chart analysis was performed for the results of the
pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test.
An inter-rater assessment was made for 20% of the data to guarantee the reliability of the
analysis. An external evaluator, a biologist, performed the analysis twice. First, a training
phase was conducted to teach the method for performing the qualitative analysis. The
reliability after the second evaluation was 73%. The significance of the differences
between the pre-, post-, and delayed tests was analysed statistically. Students’ learning
goals were classified qualitatively according to their answer to the question “What would
you like to know further about photosynthesis?” after the pre-test. The answers were categor-
ized into three groups: learning goals targeting systemic understanding, learning goals
intended to learn more factual things, and no specified learning goals. Three researchers
classified the learning goals independently, and the reliability was 76%. Learning goals tar-
geting systemic understanding were interpreted as high-level, while goals aiming to remem-
ber factual things were interpreted as low-level learning goals.
508 AHOPELTO, MIKKILA¨-ERDMANN, ANTO, AND PENTTINEN
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
Figure 2. The analyzing tool, a scientific conceptual chart concerning photosynthesis.
C
O
N
C
E
P
T
U
A
L
C
H
A
N
G
E
C
O
N
C
E
R
N
IN
G
P
H
O
T
O
S
Y
N
T
H
E
S
IS
509
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
 
b
y
 
[
T
u
r
k
u
 
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
]
 
a
t
 
0
6
:
4
9
 
2
1
 
D
e
c
e
m
b
e
r
 
2
0
1
5
 
Results
Students’ Representations Concerning Photosynthesis in Pre- and Post-Tests
In the pre-test (n ¼ 18), 9 participants had naı¨ve conceptions concerning the nourishment
supply of plants. In these cases, the students thought that plants got their nourishment from
the soil via their roots, meaning they thought that water and nutrients are food for plants. In
the pre-test, 2 participants expressed both naı¨ve and scientific conceptions concerning the
nourishment supply of plants, and so these students were categorized as having a synthetic
model. Only 7 participants gave correct scientific representations before reading the text.
The average score of the pre-test was 39.7 points and the standard deviation was 18.2
points (see Figure 3).
In the post-test (n ¼ 18), none of the participants had naı¨ve conceptions concerning the
nourishment supply of plants. All participants had improved their pre-test understanding;
thus it may be concluded that everyone learned something new about photosynthesis
during the treatment. Four students changed their conceptions so radically between the
pre- and post-test that they were categorised as having undergone a radical conceptual
change. Five participants had a synthetic representation in the post-test. Three of these stu-
dents had a naı¨ve model in the pre-test, and so they had only partly succeeded in revising
their conceptions. One of the participants represented almost the same kind of synthetic
model both in the pre-test and post-test. A total of 10 participants represented flawless and
correct representations, though a deficient model, after the reading process. In the post-
test, participants’ representations improved remarkably; the average score was 65.2 points
and the standard deviation was 11.0 points (see Figure 3). A statistically measured difference
between pre- and post-tests was highly significant, t(17) ¼ 27.333, p , 0.001.
In the delayed post-test (n ¼ 12), 3 of the students represented a naı¨ve model concerning
the nourishment supply of plants. However, 5 students improved their achievement in the
delayed post-test. In the delayed post-test, the average score was 58.5 and the standard devi-
ation was 12.2 (see Figure 3). Thus, the average score decreased slightly versus the post-test,
but most of the students stayed with a mainly scientific model after seven months of text
reading. The Friedman nonparametric statistical analysis shows that participants’ scores
improved significantly during the procedure, FR ¼ 13,167, df ¼ 2, p ¼ .01. A closer look
Figure 3. Changes in average scores during the procedure.
510 AHOPELTO, MIKKILA¨-ERDMANN, ANTO, AND PENTTINEN
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
at the results shows that while applying Bonferroni’s correction in a nonparametric Wilcoxon
test, students got significantly better results in the delayed post-test than they did in the pre-
test, Z ¼ 22,747, p ¼ .01. The results also remain significant while comparing groups with
different numbers of participants (in the pre-test n ¼ 18; in the delayed post-test n ¼ 12).
Learning Goals Related to Learning Outcomes
Most of the learners (n ¼ 11) expressed low-level learning goals targeted at learning
factual things concerning photosynthesis. High-level learning goals targeted at systemic
understanding were expressed by four (n ¼ 4) students. Three of the participants (n ¼ 3)
did not specify actual learning goals.
High-level learning goals were, for example: “What does photosynthesis mean? Why do
plants assimilate?”
These students aimed to understand the entities and global meaning of photosynthesis.
However, most of the participants (n ¼ 11 students), wanted to learn some facts concerning
photosynthesis. They made comments such as: “[I’d like to know] things more accurate-
ly.. . .Overall, I’d like to maybe study more closely that process of photosynthesis. . .”. It was
common for those who made this type of comment to aim to learn more factual things,
such as the chemical formula of photosynthesis. Three of the participants did not name
any particular learning goals at all. The learning goals related to learning outcomes are
illustrated in Figure 4.
According to Figure 4, high-level learning goals predict high-level learning outcomes.
Three out of four of those who aimed to deeply understand reached a conceptual change.
Further, only one of those who had aimed to learn more factual things achieved a conceptual
change, and two ended up with a synthetic model. Most of the students who already had a
scientific model in the pre-test expressed less high-level learning goals.
Figure 4. Learning goals related to learning outcomes.
CONCEPTUAL CHANGE CONCERNING PHOTOSYNTHESIS 511
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
Discussion
Our study indicates that future elementary school teachers have the same kinds of naı¨ve
conceptions concerning photosynthesis as have been observed among children. Before text
reading, more than half of our student teachers thought that plants take their nourishment
ready-made from the soil. This is an issue of concern, as all of the students except 1 had
studied all of the compulsory biology courses in the curriculum. On the other hand, an impor-
tant result is that a coherent and argumentative expository text supported learning, so that in
the post-test none of the participants had any remaining naı¨ve conceptions concerning the
nourishment supply of plants. After 7 months, 3 students still had a naı¨ve model concerning
the nourishment supply of plants, while in the pre-test the number was 9 students. From the
results, we can draw the conclusion that learning outcomes supported by a high-level text-
book text remained high.
Furthermore, this study indicates that learning goals seem to have an important role in
conceptual change, at least with experienced adult students. Those students who expressed
high-level learning goals targeted at deep understanding of the topic were more likely to
achieve conceptual change than students with more superficial learning goals. Similar
results regarding learning goals have been documented by Entwistle and McCune (2004),
who examined, among other things, the kinds of learning orientations of students with differ-
ent learning goals. The results support previous ideas concerning the role of intentional learn-
ing in the conceptual change process (see Sinatra & Mason, 2008). It seems that intentional
learning is at least one factor that influences who achieves conceptual change and who
remains with a naı¨ve or synthetic model even after years of studying.
Limitations of the Study
This study is a pilot study of a larger research project targeted at testing a new process
method, eye-tracking, in investigating conceptual change. Because of this technically diffi-
cult and time-consuming method, the number of participants was relatively small. On the
other hand, a small sample size enables the ability to mix methods and provide a deep
case analysis, in which each student’s representation is examined in detail using a flow
chart as an analysis tool. Unfortunately, not all participants could be reached for the
delayed post-test. Thus, studies with a control group and with a bigger sample size are
needed in the future. Further, student teachers are high-level learners and it is possible that
certain students reached relatively high scores in the tests by reproducing the text.
However, questions that aimed to measure the students’ ability to apply the knowledge
required a deeper understanding of the content.
In this study, learning goals were identified after answering the questions in the pre-test.
This may have had an impact on students’ answers, and students’ learning goals may have
been different if there had not been any preceding stimulus. Nevertheless, this study
makes a contribution to the science education of elementary school teachers at the university
level. Furthermore, identification of the important role of learning goals for deep learning and
conceptual change can be seen as an important result.
Implications of Intervention
The learning process is exposed to problems if an understanding of the scientific model
demands changes in one’s mental frame theories (Vosniadou, 1994), and this is often the case
512 AHOPELTO, MIKKILA¨-ERDMANN, ANTO, AND PENTTINEN
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
for the understanding of photosynthesis. Understanding how plants differ from animals is a
prerequisite for understanding the importance of photosynthesis in the global ecosystem.
Concerning photosynthesis, at first, one has to be aware of the differences between
animals and plants in order to understand why life on Earth is dependent on green plants.
After that, one still has to be careful not to mix scientific language with everyday language
(see Wiser & Amin, 2001). In everyday life, we can often discuss things without using exact
scientific concepts. However, with photosynthesis in question, mixing up certain words, such
as nourishment and nutrient, can cause serious misunderstandings. Both the words and their
meanings are similar, and they are often used interchangeably in everyday life, which makes
mixing them quite easy.
It can be expected that conceptual change concerning photosynthesis occurs in at least
two phases. Often young children categorize plants as non-living things (Vosniadou et al.,
2008). Later, via everyday experiences, such as when children see that plants can grow,
they need to be watered, and they can die, a child learns to re-categorize plants as living
things and goes through a conceptual change (Vosniadou et al., 2008). However, another
conceptual change is needed, namely an understanding of how animals and plants differ
from each other.
Many scientific models are extremely complex and need to be over-simplified in order to
provide a scientific explanation that is understandable by all. In addition, the teaching of
biology tries to explain all of the anatomical and physiological differences between organ-
isms by comparing the properties of organisms with those of humans. This may cause mis-
understandings about such things as water and nutrients as food for plants. Even adults seem
to think that plants eat and take nourishment from the environment as humans and other
animals do. That is why, in the science classroom, the differences between animals and
plants should be made more apparent in order to enable conceptual change.
From the university pedagogical point of view, these results highlight questions concern-
ing the effectiveness of science teaching and learning in teacher education. It is a cause for
concern that future elementary school teachers maintain basic misconceptions despite their
many years of high-level education. The other important factor illustrated in this study is
the teachers’ ability to learn from the text. Effective skills for learning from a text are essential
for elementary school teachers. They have to independently study new research results in
different areas and update their own knowledge and teaching according to the latest findings.
In Finland, there is little science learning material aimed at future elementary teachers,
even though they need to master many science subjects. Further, assessing the culture at uni-
versity should be a target of increasing criticism, because years of education do not seem to be
enough to support conceptual change. This may lead to the worrying outcome that teachers
are not able to correct misconceptions in their classrooms or, even worse, that they may teach
the wrong things to their students. Therefore, science learning materials at the university level
should be designed so that handbooks concerning basic scientific phenomena are available to
school teachers.
In science, it is common that new theories replace previous ones, and thus the abandoning
of previous conceptions is essential. Teachers, as researchers, should maintain elastic knowl-
edge structures so that conceptual change can occur again and again when new information
comes to light. Metaconceptual awareness is a prerequisite for teachers to be able to under-
stand their own, as well as their students’, difficulties in learning. In addition, teachers have to
constantly be able to evaluate new, and sometimes revolutionary, research results and
CONCEPTUAL CHANGE CONCERNING PHOTOSYNTHESIS 513
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
integrate them into their teaching. Thus, just like students, teachers must also be continuous
learners.
References
Chi, M.T.H. (2008). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation,
and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook on conceptual change
research (pp. 61–82). New York: Routledge.
Chi, M.T.H., & Roscoe, R.D. (2002). The process and challenges of conceptual change. In M. Limo´n
& L. Mason (Eds.), Reconsidering conceptual change. Issues in theory and practice (pp. 3–27).
Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic.
Chinn, C.A., & Brewer, W.F. (1993). The role of anomalous data in knowledge acquisition: A theor-
etical framework and implications for science instruction. Review of Educational Research, 63,
1–49.
Duit, R. (1999). Conceptual change approaches in science education. In W. Schnotz, S. Vosniadou, &
M. Carretero (Eds.), New perspectives on conceptual change (pp. 263–282). Amsterdam, NL:
Pergamon.
Duit, R., & Treagust, D.F. (2003). Conceptual change: A powerful framework for improving science
teaching and learning. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 671–688.
Entwistle, N.J., & McCune, V. (2004). The conceptual bases of study strategy inventories. Educational
Psychology Review, 16, 325–344.
Finnish Educational Government. (2003). Curriculum of high school education. Vammala, Finland:
Vammala Printers.
Finnish Educational Government. (2004). Curriculum of basic education. Vammala, Finland:
Vammala Printers.
Hatano, G., & Inagaki, K. (1997). Qualitative changes in intuitive biology. European Journal of
Psychology of Education, 12, 111–130.
Hynd, C.R. (2001). Refutational texts and the change process. International Journal of Educational
Research, 35, 699–714.
Kintsch, W. (1986). Learning from text: Cognition and instruction. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Limo´n, M., & Mason, L. (2002). Prologue. In M. Limo´n & L. Mason (Eds.), Reconsidering conceptual
change: Issues in theory and practice (pp. xv–xx). Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic.
Mason, L., Gava, M., & Boldrin, A. (2008). On warm conceptual change: The interplay of text, epis-
temological beliefs, and topic interest. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 291–309.
Mikkila¨, M., & Olkinuora, E. (1995). Oppikirjat ja oppiminen. Oppimistutkimuksen keskuksen julk-
aisuja 4 [Textbooks and learning. Publications of the Centre for learning Research 4]. Turku,
Finland: University of Turku.
Mikkila¨-Erdmann, M. (2001). Improving conceptual change concerning photosynthesis through text
design. Learning and Instruction, 11, 241–257.
Mikkila¨-Erdmann, M. (2002). Text comprehension and conceptual change: Interaction between text
design and levels of text comprehension. In L. Mason & M. Limon (Eds.), Reframing the
processes of conceptual change: Integrating theory and practice (pp. 337–356). Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
Mintzes, J.J., & Wandersee, J.H. (2005). Research in science teaching and learning: A human
constructivist view. In J.J. Mintzes, J.H. Wandersee, & J.D. Novak (Eds.), Teaching science
for understanding: A human constructivist view (pp. 59–92). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Pintrich, P.R., Marx, R.W., & Boyle, R.A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of moti-
vational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of
Educational Research, 63, 167–199.
514 AHOPELTO, MIKKILA¨-ERDMANN, ANTO, AND PENTTINEN
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5 
Posner, G.J., Strike, K.A., Hewson, P.W., & Gertzog, W.A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific
conception: Towards a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66, 211–227.
Roth, K. (1990). Developing meaningful conceptual understanding in science. In B. Jones & L. Idol
(Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 139–175). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Ross, P., Tronson, D., & Ritchie, R.J. (2005). Modelling photosynthesis to increase conceptual under-
standing. Journal of Biological Education, 40, 84–88.
Sinatra, G., & Mason, L. (2008). Beyond knowledge: Learner characteristics influencing conceptual
change. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook on conceptual change research
(pp. 560–582). New York: Routledge.
van Dijk, T.A., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York: Academic.
Vosniadou, S. (1991). Children’s naı¨ve models and the processing of expository text. In M. Carretero,
M. Pope, R.J. Simons, & J.I. Pozo (Eds.), Learning and instruction: European research in an
international context (pp. 325–336). Oxford: Pergamon.
Vosniadou, S. (1994). Capturing and modelling the process of conceptual change. Learning and
Instruction, 4, 45–69.
Vosniadou, S. (2007a). The cognitive-situative divide and the problem of conceptual change.
Educational Psychologist, 42, 55–66.
Vosniadou, S. (2007b). Conceptual change and education. Human Development, 50, 47–54.
Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W.F. (1992). Mental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change in
childhood. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 535–585.
Vosniadou, S., Ioannides, C., Dimitrakopoulou, A., & Papademetriou, E. (2001). Designing learning
environments to promote conceptual change in science. Learning and Instruction, 11, 381–419.
Vosniadou, S., Vamvakoussi, X., & Skopeliti, I. (2008). The framework theory approach to the
problem of conceptual change. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook of research on
conceptual change (pp. 3–34). New York: Routledge.
Wiser, M., & Amin, T. (2001). ‘Is heat hot?’ Inducing conceptual change by integrating everyday and
scientific perspectives on thermal phenomena. Learning and Instruction, 11, 331–355.
Wood-Robinson, C. (1995). Children’s biological ideas: Knowledge about ecology, inheritance, and
evolution. In S.M. Glynn & R. Duit (Eds.), Learning science in the schools (pp. 111–130).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
CONCEPTUAL CHANGE CONCERNING PHOTOSYNTHESIS 515
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d 
by
 [T
ur
ku
 U
niv
ers
ity
] a
t 0
6:4
9 2
1 D
ec
em
be
r 2
01
5