Theme Article: Special Issue on Quantum Visual Computing
A Chronicle of Quantum Technologies in
Game and Software Development
Natasha Skult, Department of Computing, University of Turku, Finland
Laura Piispanen, School of Science, Aalto University, Finland
Metincan Atas, Department of Modeling and Simulation, Middle East Technical University, Türkiye
Klementyna Jankiewicz, Quantum Flytrap, Israel
Elif Surer, Department of Modeling and Simulation, Middle East Technical University, Türkiye
Jouni Smed, Department of Computing, University of Turku, Finland
Zeki C. Seskir, Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology,
Germany
Abstract—The ongoing second quantum revolution, marked by advancements
harnessing quantum phenomena, has permeated various fields, including communi-
cations, computation, and networking, collectively known as quantum technologies
(QT). Quantum computing, a focal point within QT, has led to the emergence of
quantum games, a novel research and development area exploring creative appli-
cations of quantum computing in game development. While more than 300 quantum
games have been developed by enthusiasts and commercial parties, a compre-
hensive research program or state-of-the-art review is notably absent. This paper
addresses this gap by conducting a thorough literature review, presenting current
advancements and examples in quantum games and interactive designs, and ex-
ploring future prospects for quantum technologies in game development practices.
T he anticipation of the second quantumrevolution, characterized by the developmentof new technologies leveraging the control
and manipulation of quantum phenomena, is
impacting numerous fields of technology and science.
These efforts span communications, computation,
networking, sensing, simulation, and metrology,
collectively referred to as quantum technologies (QT).
There are more than 30 national and regional initiatives
around the globe committing over a total of $38b public
spending to the combined QT efforts by 2030s and
more than 400 QT start-ups founded, mostly in the
last decade [1]. Such levels of investment, and the
growing interest in QT due to strategic reasons, QT
being categorized under critical technologies by both
XXXX-XXX © 2024 IEEE
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/XXX.0000.0000000
the EU1 and the US2 causing it to be subjected under
tighter export controls and investment screening
regulations, and with organizations such as the
European Commission and NATO coming up with
their quantum strategies3, there is a considerable
interest towards the field. Within the more general
ecosystem of QT, quantum computing as a research
field and the development of quantum computers by
private companies as commercial products received
distinctive attention by several industries, resulting
in formation of industrial consortia in several EU
1M. Riedel et al., “Europe’s Quantum Flagship initiative,” 2,
Quantum Sci. Technol. 4(2), 020501, IOP Publishing (2019)
[doi:10.1088/2058-9565/ab042d].
2M. G. Raymer and C. Monroe, “The US National Quan-
tum Initiative,” 2, Quantum Sci. Technol. 4(2), 020504,
IOP Publishing (2019) [doi:10.1088/2058-9565/ab0441].l.
4(2), 020501, IOP Publishing (2019) [doi:10.1088/2058-
9565/ab042d].
3NATO’s Quantum Technologies Strategy: https://www.nato.
int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_221777.htm
xx Published by the IEEE Computer Society IEEE Computer Graphics & Applications 1
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
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countries, the US, India, Japan, and others. All these
led to a rapid expansion of stakeholders within the QT
ecosystem [2].
Game and software developers have expressed
a growing interest in utilizing their creative powers
in the search of new ways of using quantum
computing [3]. A new research and development
area called quantum games (not to be confused
with quantum games of extending game theory
to quantum rules and strategies) is being formed
in recent years. In the literature, quantum physics
referencing games have been defined as quantum
games quantum technologies; games might have
perceivable aspects of quantum physics in them as
visuals, narrative design, or through actions defined
by game mechanics; they might serve the purposes of
science research or education in quantum physics; or
even connect to quantum computers and simulators
[4], [5], [6]. To date, well over 300 quantum games4
have been presented in public and the incorporation
of quantum computing in game development has also
started to attract many professional developers [4].
Although this new topic of quantum games and
game development has been gaining attention, with
several hundred quantum games being already re-
leased, no clear research program or a state-of-the-
art review on the topic exists. In this paper, we aim
to remedy that gap and review the existing relevant
literature (Section 2), present the current state-of-the-
art regarding quantum games and other interactive
designs via some examples that the authors have been
directly involved with (Section 3) and discuss the fu-
ture prospects of quantum technologies and quantum
simulations in game development processes (Section
4). We present our findings and conclusions (Section 5
and 6) as an invitation to all software developers, game
developers and anyone interested in testing out the
latest technological advancements in their respective
projects and fields of interest.
2. Navigating the Game
Development and Quantum
Technology Landscape: A Synthesis
of Previous Studies
The inquiry on the intersection of game development
and quantum physics research is an increasingly
4The list of quantum games - https://kiedos.art/quantum-
games-list/. Accessed: [21 February 2024].
active field [4], [7], [8]. In this section, we provide
literature reviews on the subjects of the current stage
of game development tools and practices (Subsection
2.1) and the literature on quantum game development
and quantum games (Subsection 2.2).
2.1 Literature on Game Development Tools
and Practices
The game development pipeline is a complex endeavor
with a vast number of components such as narrative,
mechanics, levels, difficulty, user interface, audio, AI,
and many more [9]. The narrative component of game
development involves creating coherent stories with
interactive gameplay to create immersive experiences.
The story helps players emotionally connect to the
game, provides context for the players’ actions, and
enriches the game world with lore and character
backstories [9]. The development process of the
story involves character development and creating the
theme and lore for players to engage more deeply with
the game world. Frameworks such as the three-act
structure5 and the hero’s journey help develop a
coherent and engaging story [10], [11], [12].
Modern game engines support scripting dialogues,
cutscenes and narrative branching systems, helping
game and narrative designers to bring their vision to
life. In linear narratives the player follows an already
designed sequence of events without being able to
modify how the narrative unfolds, and in an interactive
narrative the player’s decisions can lead to multiple
outcomes [9]. Interactive narratives offer a more
personalized experience to players. However, this
approach requires careful planning to ensure that
all alternative narratives are meaningful and work
in coherence with gameplay mechanics. Otherwise,
the alternative endings and/or cutscenes may break
immersion, or gameplay may feel repetitive and less
meaningful for players.
Another component of game development is level
design, which usually begins with outlining the level
objectives and setting the level’s theme and how to
utilize gameplay mechanics. Sketches of the level
layouts help determine the level flow, setting the
groundwork for game development. Level design
sets the game’s pacing and balance for an enjoyable
5Ip B, “Narrative structures in computer and video games:
Part 1: Context, definitions, and initial findings,” Games and
Culture, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 103–134, 2011.
2 xx 2024
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
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experience. Having a well-balanced difficulty in games
is important, as it is one factor that affects players’
focus and keeps them in the flow6. To maintain a
balanced level of difficulty, some games dynamically
adapt the difficulty of the game according to the
player’s skill7. Incorporating story elements into the
level design gives the gameplay more depth and
context. Game mechanics, visual style, and other
aspects of the game should seamlessly work with the
story elements and with each other to enhance the
immersion.
Methods such as procedural content generation
(PCG), the creation of diverse content through
algorithms rather than the manual parameter setup,
can be used in level design components to enrich the
gameplay [13]. “No Man’s Sky” and “Minecraft” are
two popular examples that showcase the potential
of procedural content generation in video games,
which is used to dynamically generate terrains
and ecosystems with endless possibilities8. This
method aims to ensure every playthrough is different
from each other and increases the game’s replayability.
Game aesthetics/game art is an important compo-
nent in setting the game’s atmosphere and shaping
players’ emotions. Game art enhances the game ex-
perience by creating an immersive game world and
helping players connect with the game to create the
game’s visual and sensorial identity. New technologies
enhance the impact of game art in the games with
more realistic, aesthetically pleasing art. Real-time ray
tracing is one of the methods that create highly realistic
visuals, amplifying the games’ environment and atmo-
sphere. By simulating the physical behavior of light,
ray tracing enables realistic effects such as reflections
and shadows to make the game environment more
realistic [14]. Popular game engines such as Unity3D
and Unreal Engine integrate ray tracing methods into
6J. Schell, The Art of Game Design: A book of lenses. CRC
Press, 2008.
7P. D. Paraschos and D. E. Koulouriotis, “Game difficulty
adaptation and experience personalization: a literature re-
view,” International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction,
vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 1–22, 2023.
8J. Togelius, G. N. Yannakakis, K. O. Stanley, and C.
Browne, “Search-based procedural content generation: A tax-
onomy and survey,” IEEE Transactions on Computational
Intelligence and AI in Games, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 172–186,
2011., J. Togelius, N. Shaker, and M. J. Nelson, “Introduction,”
in Procedural Content Generation in Games: A Textbook and
an Overview of Current Research (N. Shaker, J. Togelius, and
M. J. Nelson, eds.), Springer, 2015.
their engine so that developers can easily utilize them
in their games.
The visual quality enhancements of games
usually come at the cost of reduced performance.
This trade-off can be crucial, especially for genres
such as shooter games where reaction times are
essential and affect the player’s enjoyment and
performance. Different ray tracing techniques have
been developed to get better results in terms of
performance and quality. Another promising solution
for better performance is using deep learning for
super-resolution, an algorithm that allows games
to run at lower resolutions and upscale them to
higher visual qualities. NVIDIA’s Deep Learning Super
Sampling (DLSS)9 is one of the latest examples of
this technology.
User interface (UI) components of games are
design elements that provide information about the
game state to the players. The interface design should
be user-friendly and show necessary information,
without any elements overwhelming the players’
experience. They are usually in 2D format, on the
screen separated from the game, but they can also be
in 3D. Since the sense of presence is really important
for immersion in Virtual Reality (VR) games, 3D
interfaces are found to be more realistic and have the
potential to be more effective10.
Animations are used in games to make the
objects in the game move in a specific way.
These objects can be characters, environmental
props, or special effects. Animations bring life to
the game, making it fluid and dynamic. However,
creating realistic animations, especially for human-like
movements, can be challenging. To create more
realistic animations, motion capture technologies
are used to record detailed motions in real-time.
By equipping a special suit with infrared markers,
performers simulate the action that will be used in
games. Cameras positioned around the performer
capture the performer’s motions and the surrounding
volume is used to reconstruct those movements in
9Nvidia Deep Learning Super Sampling
(DLSS):https://resources.nvidia.com/en-us-game-dev-
dlss/how-to-successfully?ncid=no-ncid
10S. Safikhani, M. Holly and J. Pirker, "Work-in-
Progress—Conceptual Framework for User Interface
in Virtual Reality," 2020 6th International Conference
of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN),
San Luis Obispo, CA, USA, 2020, pp. 332-335, doi:
10.23919/iLRN47897.2020.9155207
xx 2024 3
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
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the digital world for a more realistic representation.
Procedural animation algorithms can also be used to
dynamically change according to the environment or
adapt to specific gameplay choices of action.
Games may have multiplayer components that
enable online interactions between players. These
interactions add another layer to the game mechanics
by making the games generally more interesting
and challenging than playing against non-playable
characters (NPCs) controlled via AI11. Multiplayer
games can have systems such as matchmaking and
data synchronization. These systems are hard to
implement because the risk of waiting too long for
matchmaking can make players quit, or too long of a
delay in network transmission can cause unfairness.
Game engines provide solutions such as NetCode by
Unity3D and Replication by Unreal Engine to ease the
implementation process of multiplayer mechanisms
for developers by providing high-level features.
Games may often have multiplayer components
and contain AI-controlled NPCs. These NPCs can
perform complex decision-making processes using
methods such as behavior trees as well as move with
pathfinding algorithms such as A*. However, compared
to the real players, NPCs can decrease gameplay
immersion if the NPCs behave unrealistically within
the game world. Machine learning can be a solution
for creating believable AIs by using methods such
as generative models to simulate more fitting behavior.
Input controls are another game component
defining the medium the player interacts with the
game. This interaction can be done through a
keyboard, mouse, gamepad, touchpad, virtual reality
controllers or hand-tracking interface. It is important
that the controls in the game are responsive and
effortless for the game experience to feel sensible.
Controllers should also be customized to make the
game more accessible between different control-
modes. Game engines usually provide their own input
system for adjusting input mapping and switching
between different types of controls.
11Dardis, F. E., and Schmierbach, M. (2012). Effects of
Multiplayer Videogame Contexts on Individuals’ Recall of In-
Game Advertisements. Journal of Promotion Management,
18(1), 42–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/10496491.2012.646219
2.2 Quantum Computing for Game
Development
Quantum computing platforms such as those offered
by IBM, Google, and Microsoft offer online access
to quantum computers12. Through these platforms,
the computational power of quantum computers is
accessible to a vast range of professionals, including
game developers. Specific software and game
engines dedicated to quantum game development,
and expansions for game engines such as Unity3D
have been introduced through open access sources
[4]. Quantum computing software can be used to
simulate quantum systems and implement quantum
algorithms, which potentially have capabilities more
powerful in certain tasks than what can be achieved
with classical computers.
So far not many games connect to quantum
computers directly due to existing technical hurdles
of quantum computer access, but many claim having
used quantum simulations either in the development
of a game or implement the simulations directly
in the game play [4], [15]. The first game on a
quantum computer was developed in 2017 and was
used through a terminal interface [4], [15]. Since
then, the incorporation of quantum simulations and
quantum computers to game development has gained
popularity through open game development events
such as game jams and hackathons, particularly since
the release of the quantum software development tool
Qiskit by IBM and multiple Qiskit-themed hackathons
and game jams [16], [17].
Game jams are local, regional or even global
events for individuals and teams to create games
during a set period of time, either experimenting or
learning new tools, technologies, or creative practices,
as well as engaging in interdisciplinary creation.
There is usually an event-specific theme upon which
participants are encouraged to use as the main
topic for their games or as inspiration. For example,
Quantum Game Jams (QGJ) are considered as such
since games made during the jam are expected to
be in some capacity connected to quantum physics
[16], [17]. The relation to quantum physics can be
purely conceptual, or it can include direct scientific
12IBM Quantum: https://www.ibm.com/quantum,
Google Quantum AI: https://quantumai.google/,
Microsoft Quantum Computing:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/research-
area/quantum-computing/?
4 xx 2024
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
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implementations, the use of quantum technologies, or
simulations [4].
The origins of QGJs are in citizen science (CS)
games and educational games for learning quantum
physics and quantum technologies [16], [17], [6],
[18]. With its initial cause in scientific and research
development, the QGJ has grown into a global event,
which has also been the first ever game development
event with access to quantum computers and tutoring
on quantum computing [16]. The participants in QGJs
have become more diverse throughout the years,
including visual artists, writers, and musicians who
have no direct contact with quantum physics or
game development prior to the event by occupation
or personal interest but are simply intrigued by the
opportunity to contribute with their own vision and
have a joint creative experience [17].
CS games extend an invitation to the general
public, encouraging active participation in scientific
research projects. These games harness the collective
intelligence and problem-solving skills of players to
address the research question(s) at hand. By merging
game design principles with scientific tasks, these
innovative platforms effectively bridge the gap between
research and real-world applications. CS games find
particular suitability in the realm of quantum physics,
where abstract concepts are often difficult to convey
without mathematics or traditional representation
methods and has led to the development of numerical
visual simulators [3], [6], [18].
Often the connection to quantum physics in
quantum games presents itself in the inspiration for
the perceivable aspects in the games, but quantum
mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement,
superposition, and quantum tunnelling can also be
used to develop novel gameplay mechanics [4].
These mechanics can give players a new perspective
and affect how they perceive and play the game
world. Examples include various versions of quantum
chess [19], [20] and quantum go [21] that utilize
the principles of quantum mechanics by building
upon classical versions. In the quantum version
of these games, pieces can, for instance, move in
multiple positions by being in a superposition state,
or they can be entangled into different pieces and
be affected by measurements simultaneously. This
adds unpredictability to the classical versions of the
gameplay.
Storytelling aspects in a game may also be
incorporated using principles of quantum mechanics
to create engaging and immersive experiences.
Quantum Break uses quantum physics concepts
to ground its science fiction mechanics, such
as time travel, with a narrative that explores its
consequences13. It complements the gameplay with
a narrative that reflects a quantum phenomenon,
making the mechanics and narrative coherent.
Interactive storytelling refers to a practice in
which the user/player/viewer of the medium takes
active participation in shaping the experience. Unlike
traditional linear storytelling, where the narrative
progresses along predetermined path(s), interactive
storytelling allows players to choose these paths and
get a sense of consequences for their actions that
directly shape their experience further. This is why
games have a broad impact not just as entertainment
media but as tools for cognitive skills development,
learning methodologies, social interactions, and
well-being. Games allow exploration of the given
topic, challenge, or artistic experience in a safe digital
environment that can be adjusted for specific needs of
the players, especially in cross-platform accessibility.
This is why interactive storytelling is playing an
ever-increasing role in game design and development
of immersive gaming experiences and allows testing
of potential uses of other emerging technologies and
design principles, such as QT [8].
The use of quantum computing procedural
generation techniques offers promising potential in
creating vast, complex game worlds [4]. While quantum
algorithms theoretically have the potential to process
an extensive amount of data in certain processes
faster than classical computers, the practical use of
quantum applications is still in the early development
stages. Quantum computing principles can already
be applied in game development to create dynamic
graphical and environmental iterations through a
method that uses quantum interference in creating a
unique blurring effect [22].
Due to algorithmic generation methods, the
randomness generated by classical computers is
not truly random. The methods used to get random
numbers in classical computers are often seeded by
environmental factors such as mouse movements or
13M. Kamen, “How real physics impacted time travel game
quantum break.” https://www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-
break-interview-sam-lake. Ac- cessed 20 February 2024.
xx 2024 5
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
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computer time, to break possible repeating patterns in
the output [23]. For quantum computers, generating a
truly random number is possible. Processes such as
measuring a qubit in superposition result in outcomes
that are fundamentally unpredictable and access the
inherent randomness of quantum physics. Quantum
randomness can be used in-game mechanics where
randomness is important to ensure that these
mechanics are truly unpredictable [24].
The integration of quantum computing with game
development, facilitated by platforms from IBM,
Google, and Microsoft, and with access to a wide
range of simulators, has enabled the creation of games
that incorporate quantum physics principles. These
advancements have been particularly evident in the
rise of QGJs, which encourage the development of
quantum-inspired games by a diverse group of partici-
pants. Such games explore novel gameplay mechanics
and narratives grounded in quantum mechanics, offer-
ing players unique experiences.
3. Examples of Quantum Integration
in Games
In this section, the authors elaborate on their learnings
and experiences on quantum games and graphical
user interfaces (GUIs) for quantum computing software
and numerical simulations they have been involved
with: C.L.A.Y., QWiz, and Pulser Studio. With the con-
stantly evolving landscape of QT, we find ourselves at
the nexus of research and practical application. The
collaborative spirit among research groups is palpable,
with diverse approaches converging under the um-
brella of quantum software development. The following
sections unfold against the backdrop of this dynamic
synergy, as we explore the various methodologies that
have surfaced through ongoing research and market-
driven projects.
3.1 C.L.A.Y., QWiz, and Pulser Studio
One of the first attempts in commercial quantum game
production was done in 2020-2021 by MiTale, a team
of game developers from Finland, together with a
research group from IBM in Zürich [4], [8]. With the
game project “C.L.A.Y. - The Last Redemption” they
have taken a step forward and experimented with the
possibilities of integrating quantum technology into the
interactive storytelling design and narrative progres-
sion of a game. This role-playing game (RPG) is set
in the post-apocalypse several generations after the
collapse of civilization. Such a narrative setting allowed
the developers to experiment with quantum simulations
in multiple aspects of game design and development,
such as generating environment and visual effects,
character development and in-game relationships and
branching narrative and encounters. QT has been
tested in the following features of the game (see Fig.
1):
• Generating environment and visual effects:
Procedural generation has a leading role in
environment and visual effects in the game
based on quantum computing technologies by
IBM’s team of researchers led by Dr. James
Wootton [22].
• Character development and in-game
relationships: Quantum physics is implemented
with in-game characters, developing
personalized relationships with the player’s
lead character based on the type of game the
player pursues. Each movement, dialogue, and
action or not taking action are deeply seated
with the narrative side of the game, providing
unique twists and outcomes for each quest.
• Branching narrative and encounters: As a
narrative-driven RPG, the choice-based narra-
tive is an obvious place in which quantum sim-
ulation can be used. The quantum effect on the
narrative progression can result in many more
possible endings with the same “choice” that the
player may make.
FIGURE 1. Screenshot from the game "C.L.A.Y. - The Last
Redemption, the use of Qiskit in map/exploration mode
While the research work is ongoing, the initial
gathered results from MiTale’s team and their players
indicate a vast potential for using quantum computing
by game designers in interactive storytelling design
practices [8].
6 xx 2024
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Furthermore, storytelling is just one part of the
bigger design pattern the game designer can use
to craft an immersive experience. Game design
comes first, in which the designer sets the challenges
and core mechanics. No amount of good story or
impressive audio-visuals can compensate for poor
game design choices. The embedded story, visuals,
and other game aspects must follow game design
principles. This is why quantum computing needs to
be accessible to game designers and other game
industry professionals so that they can explore the
full potential in which quantum technologies can
be utilized in the user-centered design of games.
It remains a challenge that quantum technology is
overly expensive and not fully accessible, as quantum
computers are a rare commodity for most of us.
Quantum computing presents its own set of
challenges for game designers to tackle. These
challenges compel designers to step out of their
comfort zone and known best practices, venturing into
the development of new ones that incorporate quantum
technologies as a new asset in game development.
On multiple occasions, game developers have been
involved in creating citizen science games for various
disciplines and research purposes, including quantum
physics and computation.
Games and interactive experiences can provide
an immersive three-dimensional environment that
amplifies the sense of presence, empowering players
to explore abstract and challenging principles on their
own terms. An exemplary illustration of this approach
is the virtual reality (VR) game “QWiz - Quantum is
Magic”14, (see Fig. 2) a collaborative creation by the
game development company MiTale and the Turku
Quantum Technology (TQT) research group at the
University of Turku [3], [18]. VR technology seamlessly
integrates players as active participants in the digital
realm, with spatial interactions closely mirroring those
of the real world. This functionality allows for the direct
manipulation of surroundings, faithfully replicating
immediate consequences for actions.
In QWiz, players assume the role of a “quantum
wizard apprentice,” learning about quantum phenom-
ena visualized as a liquid that adheres to the laws of
quantum mechanics. The game utilizes the “Quantum
14QWiz – Quantum is Magic, WebGL port:
https://qplaylearn.it/game-qwiz
Black Box”15, a numerical simulation of a quantum
control optimization problem, developed by TQT, oper-
ating in real-time in both VR and web-based versions
of the game [3], [18]. By creating a visualization of
quantum phenomena in VR, players can dynamically
adjust parameters and observe quantum effects, in-
tuitively understanding the challenges and improving
their mastery with each attempt. Simulating quantum
experiments in VR settings has shown excellent pre-
liminary results, particularly among young children. In
addition to offering a way to enter the world of quantum
mechanical behavior, QWiz has served as a citizen
science game, collecting data from player interactions
to help address topical research questions without
requiring prior physics knowledge [3], [6], [18].
FIGURE 2. QWiz VR environment
Beyond quantum games, there are examples
of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) for quantum
computing software. Pulser Studio by Pasqal
(pulserstudio.pasqal.cloud) is a web-based no-
code platform for neutral-atoms programming, created
by the Quantum Flytrap team. While it is not a game
but an introductory prototyping tool for quantum
computing, we note that the design obstacles are
similar to those in the development of GUIs for
quantum games.
One of the challenges the creators of the Pulser
Studio faced was users’ lack of “quantum intuition” or
established mental models when it comes to quan-
tum computing and visualizing quantum phenomena.
Mental models mean that the interface feels familiar,
which eliminates the need for a lengthy introduction to
how to use the tool. In the Pulser Studio, the creators
tackled this by using analogies from other disciplines
15Quantum Black Box - open source by Dr. Matteo Rossi;
https://gitlab.utu.fi/matros/quan-tum-black-box
xx 2024 7
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and translating them into a quantum computing in-
terface. For example, a feature for designing pulse
sequences (see Fig. 3) was designed to remind com-
mon sound editing software. Typically, such software
features channels with blocks of sound waves that can
be horizontally rearranged and customized by the user.
In Pulser Studio, users work with channels containing
blocks with waveforms representing light pulses. The
overall usage of the software is different, yet on the
level of a specific feature, the interaction and UX are
similar.
FIGURE 3. Channels feature from the Pulser Studio by
Pasqal, used to design pulse sequences. Control-Z Gate
example
The shared vision of these projects is to enable
players to play and explore real and numerically sim-
ulated quantum phenomena, mastering skills through
puzzle-based gameplay without requiring any previous
experience or knowledge in quantum physics. These
types of projects provide an excellent start in engaging
common players with quantum technologies, creat-
ing awareness and popularizing the field of quantum
games.
3.2 The Current State of Quantum Game
Development
The results of quantum physics themed game
developing events, for example QGJs, have been
valuable for scientific communities and researchers in
solving specific quantum physics problems, but they
have not yet shown any significant advantages for
software and game developers considering replacing
classical computing solutions in games. In most
cases, quantum simulations have been broadly tested
by game developers as a more advanced “random
event generator,” which can be an exciting feature
for a developer but does not make a significant
difference in players’ experiences [16]. Game design,
in particular, is driven by a player’s expectations and
experiences that the designer carefully crafts through
user-centered design practices. Therefore, if a feature
or, in this case, quantum technology does not directly
contribute to players’ experiences or expectations, it
does not have a value proposition that a designer
would consider for use.
Another challenge for game designers and
software developers is the limited use and accessibility
of quantum technology (including simulations) without
prior physics or advanced mathematics knowledge.
Looking into the practical needs of game developers,
commercial game development is a fast-paced
process in which every game requires rapid iterations
and testing, shaped by the chosen genre, platform,
used technologies, and most importantly, feedback
from the players. In such an environment, developers
are looking for solutions that would ease their workload
and possibly make some processes perform faster,
not necessarily to start learning quantum physics
and implement tools that are not comprehensive for
non-physicists.
Open-source simulations, such as Qiskit by IBM,
are great tools for developers to get familiar with
the potential uses of quantum technologies, yet
the direct use, as well as user interfaces, are in
Python code and add an extra layer of accessibility
challenge for game designers who do not necessarily
have any coding experience. To make quantum
computing more accessible for software and game
developers, it is crucial to have close collaboration
across these disciplines, where different professionals
with diverse sets of expertise would test and develop
new solutions for utilizing quantum simulations and
computation specifically for its use in games.
We are still in the early stages of integrating
quantum technologies with market-driven game
development; however, there are significant efforts
from industry professionals and scholars working on
possible new solutions for easier integration. Until we
have more accessible quantum software interfaces,
educational efforts play an important role in building
an informed society [25]. Besides game jams and
hackathons, there are individual projects that serve
both entertainment and education, such as “Quantum
Composer” by Science at Home, “Hello Quantum” by
IBM, “Quantum Game/Virtual Lab” by Quantum Flytrap
and “Quantum Odyssey” by Quarks Interactive [26].
All of them are designed as commercial products that
also serve the public with a scientific understanding
of quantum physics.
Quantum-inspired algorithms leverage some
principles of quantum computing without requiring a
direct connection to the quantum computer. Running
on a classical computer, these algorithms allow game
8 xx 2024
This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and 
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
developers to explore the opportunities of using
quantum technologies in game design and production
more deeply. While such games can already be fully
developed as market-ready products, such as C.L.A.Y.
- The Last Redemption [8], it does not necessarily
mean that they would function the same when
connected directly to an actual quantum computer.
This means that the results of simulations can be
entirely different from what they would be if the game
were connected directly to the quantum computer due
to additional “noise” and technical requirements (e.g.,
a steady connection).
There is a high level of uncertainty regarding the
expected results of a game made with a simulation
and intended to work directly with quantum computer
integration. One practice is to have occasional connec-
tions assembled between the game and the quantum
computer, even for a short period, such as several sec-
onds, and then let the game run further on a classical
computing system. This way, developers can evaluate
and better estimate the game design and technical
adjustments needed for the final gameplay experience
utilizing quantum computing. Limited resources and
access to available quantum computers challenge this
approach.
4. Envisioning the Future Directions
of Quantum Technologies in Game
Development
In this section we present our insight into the future
prospects of combining quantum technologies and
quantum software into game development procedures.
We see that one of the most promising and near-term
achievable ways for game development to benefit
from quantum technologies and quantum software is
through Quantum Visual Computing (QVC).
Grover’s search algorithm is one of the most
well-known examples where quantum computing
improves on classical computers, offering a quadratic
speed up. It performs a search for an item from an
unsorted list. While a classical search algorithm would
require O(N) steps to search through an unsorted
list of N items, Grover’s algorithm can achieve this in
O(
√
N) steps. This speedup becomes important in
rendering and geometry processing, where searching
and optimization are the core operations [27].
The algorithm can be used in quantum rendering
algorithms such as quantum ray tracing to utilize
quantum mechanics concepts such as superposition
and entanglement to render complex scenes16.
An example of Grover’s algorithm is Z-buffering,
which is a visible-surface algorithm that checks the Z
value for each pixel of all polygons in the scene. The
polygon with the highest Z-value is rendered on the
screen. While this is not exactly a search problem,
Grover’s algorithm can still be used to find the element
with a minimum value in a dataset. For each pixel
on the screen, a uniform quantum superposition of
states can be created where each element points at
a polygon in the database. The distance between the
polygon and the pixel gives the Z distance [27]. From
there, Grover’s algorithm reduces the computational
complexity from linear to quadratic, offering a more
efficient rendering process for complex scenes.
Global illumination is another feature that games
use to create realistic environments, and the radiosity
technique can be used to compute global illumination
in scenes. In radiosity, the pixel’s color depends on
the collection of radiosities at the corresponding point
on the scene. The emitted energy summed with
reflected energy for a point on the scene gives the
radiosity. Techniques used for Quantum Z-Buffering
and Quantum Ray Tracing can also be used for
the Quantum Radiosity algorithm to reduce the
complexity O(N2) of the classical task to O(N3/2) [27].
While the theoretical framework suggests significant
improvements in computational efficiency, the practical
use of Quantum Radiosity is still yet to come.
In classical computers, the method for super-
sampling sub-pixels in rendering is generally done by
Monte Carlo integration and is used in ray tracing.
Introducing the quantum variant of this method is called
quantum supersampling (QSS). A comparison of QSS
with classical Monte Carlo integration was performed
with simulation experiments and demonstrated that
QSS is better at reducing mean pixel error. However,
experiments made on actual quantum computers were
not as successful as simulations due to the noise in the
quantum computers 17.
Another method is with the algorithm for binary
16L. P. Santos, T. Bashford-Rogers, J. Barbosa, and P.
Navrátil, “Towards quantum ray tracing,” 2022
17E. R. Johnston, “Quantum supersampling”, SIGGRAPH
’16: Special Interest Group on Computer Graphics and In-
teractive Techniques Conference, Association for Computing
MachineryNew YorkNYUnited States, 2016
xx 2024 9
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
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image filtering called the Quantum Coin (QCoin)18,
which, compared to QSS, works better on both
simulators and actual quantum computers. QCoin is a
hybrid algorithm that has both quantum and classical
parts. This helps QCoin to work better in the presence
of noise and offers more practical advantages than
QSS19. Recently, the QSS algorithm was improved
compared to classical and quantum ray tracing on
a 3D scene rendered using Blender cycles. Results
showed that the improved quantum approach created
better image quality than classical ray tracing [14].
In the current state of game development, technolo-
gies such as procedural generation and rendering are
already used [28]. Quantum technologies have the po-
tential to enhance these technologies using quantum
algorithms providing true randomness and other fea-
tures that can inspire new gameplay mechanics. This
convergence of quantum computing and gaming not
only enriches the gaming landscape but also serves as
an innovative platform for testing practical implemen-
tations of quantum technologies as well as educating
and engaging with quantum physics concepts.
4.1 Tools for Utilising Quantum Technologies
in Games
By examining the presented case studies and
preliminary results from each of the projects, we
can see that the integration of quantum computing
and gaming technologies holds exciting potential,
especially for the future directions in software
development.
With the emergence of AI technologies and
quantum-inspired algorithms, their use for game
AI and non-player characters (NPCs) can enhance
game design practices, providing additional options
for dynamic decision-making processes by players
and optimize complex branching systems. Real-time
quantum integration can support adaptive gaming
experiences based on players’ interactions in both
single and multiplayer settings. Quantum technology
holds the potential to enhance user-generated content,
modding features and community building. Hybrid
quantum-classical gaming systems could seamlessly
combine the strengths of both technologies, allowing
18C. Cantwell, “Quantum chess: developing a mathematical
framework and design methodology for creating quantum
games,” 2019
19N. H. Shimada, T. Hachisuka, Quantum Coin Method for
Numerical Integration, Computer Graphics Forum, May 2020
a limited number of qubits to perform at their full
capabilities.
However, with the current quantum solutions and
resources available on the market, software and game
developers face challenges in understanding which
aspects of quantum computation they can utilize and,
more importantly, which aspects are most beneficial
for the specific features or functions under design and
development. When developers embark on creating
a feature or game mechanic, the chosen approach
is often based on available resources and the time
required to complete the task. Integrating quantum
software into this process requires developers to
possess a deeper understanding of the benefits it
brings, both to the development process and the
players’ experience. Furthermore, clarity on which
conditions of the quantum solution should be used
and in what manner for these two aspects is not
readily available within the current platforms on the
market.
To make quantum computing more accessible for
classical software developers and game designers, a
comprehensive tool is necessary, directly serving the
development processes. This tool should feature a
user-friendly interface, searchable functionalities, and
ideally, visual scripting aspects. A research project
led by Natasha Skult and Dr. Jouni Smed from the
Department of Computing at the University of Turku is
currently developing the initial structure of such a tool,
named “Naviqate”20. It aims to be available for initial
testing in early 2025. The tool currently utilizes the
Qiskit solution by IBM and will be applicable for game
developers using Unity3D, Unreal Engine, and Godot.
For narrative designers, the tool is already undergoing
testing with Ink, a narrative scripting language for
games developed by Inkle Studios21.
4.2 Addressing the Limitations, User
Experience Challenges and Role of a Game
Designer in Quantum Game Design
Regardless of the physical systems and specifications
of the quantum computers, creating highly accessible
QT user experience and interaction design is
20Naviqate - tool under development by Natasha
Skult as part of doctoral research project “Interactive
Storytelling with Quantum Computing” at University
of Turku, under the supervision by Prof. Jouni Smed:
https://www.mitalegames.com/quantumgames
21Ink by Inkle Studios: https://www.inklestudios.com/ink/
10 xx 2024
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
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crucial. Designing interactive experiences requires a
multidisciplinary approach, combining creative and
technical knowledge, empathy, soft skills, and an
understanding of the target users. User experience
design, as well as interface design (UX and UI
designs), is in the early stages of development for
quantum simulations and technologies due to their
complexity. Currently, the majority of QT simulations
and tools are available in various programming
languages, with most accessible through Python
code. Ensuring that the same content is accessible
to a wide range of users, including those with
non-physics or limited coding experience, is highly
demanding and not currently offered by any platform
on the market.
A specific challenge is providing effective
feedback to users about their actions within quantum
simulations. The feedback system, as well as guidance
on using the tools most effectively, is still in the early
stages of development. IBM Q Experience and
Classiq22 platforms provide well-designed graphical
user interfaces alongside the programming language,
but may still seem overwhelming to many users
who are not affiliated with quantum physics. In
game development, UI/UX design best practices
have evolved significantly due to the necessity
for cross-platform compatibility and user accessibility
features. By applying inclusive UI/UX design principles
from the games industry [9], quantum technology
experts can benefit from their insights in solving
the visual representations of the complex features
these platforms provide. Furthermore, these are
iterative processes that require continuous refinement
based on user feedback and changing requirements.
Depending on the platform, creating user interfaces for
quantum technologies requires a deep understanding
of the technical aspects involved, including the
implementation of frameworks and tools. This ensures
that responsive design with a clear visual hierarchy
and prioritized readability (font sizes, line spacing,
contrast, etc.) will ensure easier navigation and
intuitive interaction [9].
The role of a game designer is a combination of
creative, technical, and interpersonal skills, including
communication, emotional intelligence, and teamwork.
In traditional game design practices, designers are
22Classiq is quantum software platform that enables the
design, optimization, analysis, and execution of quantum al-
gorithms, https://www.classiq.io/
tasked with crafting the overall gameplay experience
and addressing specific features and mechanics within
the game. In larger teams, game designers may lead
a dedicated group handling mechanics, level design,
in-game economy, and other aspects falling under
game design. In smaller indie teams, a game designer
might work independently and may take on additional
roles, such as Team Leader. Regardless of the team
size, the game designer holds the responsibility of
communicating the project’s vision and goals to the
team, answering questions, and addressing concerns
from both the team and players.
Applying traditional game design practices might
prove insufficient when working with quantum
computing, and thus the role of a separate "quantum
designer" has been suggested to accompany
game designers and software designers [18].
The specifications of quantum technologies can
offer increased computation power and a higher
number of content combinations for players to
experience. Moreover, the content can be directly
adjustable or created by the player, allowing game
designers to explore modular game design practices.
This approach enables dynamic storytelling with
personalized content, giving players actual choices to
shape the game world [8]. One of the novel and very
valuable advantages in potential use of QT in game
design and development is the modular development
approach which can enhance the game design
choices to be adapted into the gameplay experience
along with the possible interactions of the players. The
designer’s new role becomes one of facilitating these
choices, ensuring that consequences are meaningful
and contribute to the overall interactive storytelling.
This shift resembles the role of a “game master” in
roleplaying games, where the game evolves through
active contributions from all players in collaboration
with the game master.
While the modular game design approach brings
exciting opportunities for game designers, it also in-
troduces new challenges. Balancing player freedom
with a coherent narrative, managing the complexity of
dynamic systems, and ensuring an enjoyable expe-
rience for a diverse player base are among the key
considerations in this revolutionary method.
5. Discussion
In this paper we have primarily focused on providing
a review and projections from within the field of
quantum game development to discuss the future
xx 2024 11
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
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prospects of quantum technologies and quantum
simulations in game development processes. This is a
deliberate choice, one which provides both a degree
of freedom for us the authors and several limitations
on top of those that arise due to the nature of this
topic. First, the extend of literature on (classical)
game development is several orders of magnitude
greater than the existing literature of quantum
game development, therefore making a complete
review of game development literature or even a
complete coverage of all the game development
components is not possible due to the context of
this study and the review we provided in Subsection
2.1 should be accepted only as representative and
not as an exhaustive one. Second, most common
development activities of quantum games and game
development efforts utilizing quantum phenomena
(particularly quantum computers) occur either in online
communities or in commercial enterprises, and only
rarely presented in academic media such as published
articles or proceedings. Several of the authors are
either personally or via their networks involved with a
wide range of quantum game development activities,
however, it would be entirely likely that there are
efforts that fall beyond what is publicly (or privately)
available to us. Therefore, the content provided in this
study is mostly representative and not exhaustive this
time, not due to the extent of the activities but due to
their sparse and non-academic nature.
Finally, our projections on how the future of quan-
tum technologies might impact game development
should be accepted as such, projections. Quantum
computers and similar quantum technologies that may
be relevant for game development are still in their very
early stages of development. We do not know whether
a future large scale quantum computer will perform on
the cloud or on-premise, or whether it will perform on
superconducting circuits that require excessive cooling
or on ion-trap systems that require entire vacuum
systems to operate. These factors directly relate to
the potential capabilities (e.g. gate operation times),
costs of utilizing such systems for games, and resource
consumption of these future devices. Setting out a
clear and well-defined research program at this point
requires introduction of a series of what-if scenarios
that lead to entirely different analyses on hardware
levels for the same higher-level game development
components and relevant methods (e.g. ray tracing and
procedural content generation). Therefore, we chose
to focus on the topics we have direct experience in,
while also acknowledging that these future directions
are mere potential uses, as the truth is, we do not know
which physical systems the future quantum computers
will operate on.
6. Conclusion
The integration of quantum computing in game
development represents a still young field of
research and development, which already shows
promising unprecedented advancements in simulation,
optimization, and immersive experiences. Tracing
its historical roots from theoretical concepts to
practical applications in this article, the literature
review underscores the transformative potential of
quantum computing in game development. Current
practices showcase early experiments in algorithm
optimization and complex simulations, while upcoming
developments hold promise for solving intricate
problems in AI and procedural content generation.
As the gaming industry starts to get more literate
about quantum technologies and vice versa, it stands
on the cusp of a new era, where the computational
power of qubits opens new opportunities for innovative
gameplay mechanics and user experiences. However,
challenges such as hardware constraints and
algorithmic refinement persist. Nevertheless, the
journey from theory to application in quantum game
development remains an exciting frontier that has
the potential to reshape the gaming landscape
fundamentally.
We are at the very early stages of this potential
transformation, which may (and possibly will) follow a
trajectory which is particularly difficult to ascertain at
this point. In this article, we provided a solid ground for
the following research to build upon and provided some
speculative future directions that we find promising and
fruitful in the not-so-distant future (with some tools
such as "Naviqate" already under development). We
believe that further research and interest towards the
topic is warranted at this point, even if to just expand
our classical horizons to get a glimpse of what we
can learn and utilize for game development from the
microcosmos.
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xx 2024 13
This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and 
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/MCG.2024.3448613
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/