How loneliness and school connectedness associate with academic self-efficacy in upper secondary education: a longitudinal analysis

Academic self-efficacy (ASE) is an established predictor of academic attainment. This longitudinal study investigates the development of ASE at the beginning of upper secondary education in Finland, focusing on the role of loneliness and school connectedness. Panel data from the first three semesters were analysed using individual-level fixed-effects regression. Results show a declining trend in ASE over time, an increase in loneliness negatively associated with ASE, and a decline in school connectedness that remains positively related to ASE, particularly among vocational students. The findings indicate that addressing loneliness and fostering school connectedness are critical during the transition to upper secondary education.